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Aircraft carrier

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Air & Sea transport

   Four aircraft carriers, Principe-de-Asturias, USS Wasp, USS Forrestal
   and HMS Invincible (front-to-back), showing the difference in size
   between a supercarrier, light V/STOL carriers, and an amphibious
   carrier.
   Enlarge
   Four aircraft carriers, Principe-de-Asturias, USS Wasp, USS Forrestal
   and HMS Invincible (front-to-back), showing the difference in size
   between a supercarrier, light V/STOL carriers, and an amphibious
   carrier.

   An aircraft carrier is a warship designed to deploy and recover
   aircraft — in effect acting as a sea-going airbase. Aircraft carriers
   thus allow a naval force to project air power great distances without
   having to depend on local bases for land-based aircraft.

   Modern navies that operate such ships treat aircraft carriers as the
   capital ship of the fleet, a role previously played by the battleship.
   The change, part of the growth of air power as a significant part of
   warfare, took place during World War II. A battleship could fire
   hundreds of large caliber shells at a target and score possibly a dozen
   hits. Their maximum range was usually no more than thirty miles.
   However, an aircraft launched from a carrier could deliver " smart
   weapons" accurately at a range of over one hundred miles. Thus, the
   aircraft carrier could perform the original mission of the battleship,
   causing heavy damage to an enemy fleet at great distance and with
   superior accuracy. Due to the long range of the striking aircraft heavy
   armour was less of a requirement and because of this, for example
   during World War II, aircraft carriers were less expensive and time
   consuming to build than battleships. Unescorted carriers are considered
   vulnerable to attack by other ships, aircraft, submarines or missiles
   and therefore travel as part of a carrier battle group. Unlike other
   types of capital ships in the 20th century, aircraft carrier designs
   since World War II have been effectively unlimited by any consideration
   save budgetary, and the ships have ballooned in size accordingly: The
   large, modern Nimitz class of United States Navy carriers has a
   displacement nearly four times that of the World War II-era USS
   Enterprise.

Flight deck

   Flight operations on the deck of USS Abraham Lincoln.
   Enlarge
   Flight operations on the deck of USS Abraham Lincoln.

   The key aspect of the aircraft carrier is that it is, in effect, a
   runway at sea and modern aircraft carriers have a flat-top deck design
   that serves as a flight deck for take-off and landing of aircraft.
   Aircraft take off to the front, into the wind, and land from the rear.
   Carriers steam at speed, for example up to 35  knots (65 km/h), into
   the wind during take-off in order to increase the apparent wind speed,
   thereby reducing the speed of the aircraft relative to the ship. On
   some ships, a steam-powered catapult is used to propel the aircraft
   forward assisting the power of its engines and allowing it to take off
   in a shorter distance than would otherwise be required, even with the
   headwind effect of the ship's course. On other carriers, aircraft do
   not require assistance for take off — the requirement for assistance
   relates to aircraft design and performance. Conversely, when landing on
   a carrier, conventional aircraft rely upon a tailhook that catches on
   arrestor wires stretched across the deck to bring them to a stop in a
   shorter distance than normal. Other aircraft — helicopters and V/STOL
   (Vertical/Short Take-Off and Landing) designs — utilize their hover
   capability to land vertically and so require no assistance in speed
   reduction upon landing.

   Conventional ("tailhook") aircraft rely upon a landing signal officer
   (LSO) to control the plane's landing approach, visually gauging
   altitude, attitude, and speed, and transmitting that data to the pilot.
   Before the angled deck emerged in the 1950s, LSOs used colored paddles
   to signal corrections to the pilot. From the late 1950s onward, visual
   landing aids such as mirrors provided information on proper glide
   slope, but LSOs still transmit voice calls to landing pilots by radio.

   Since the early 1950s it has been common to direct the landing recovery
   area off to port at an angle to the line of the ship. The primary
   function of the angled deck landing area is to allow aircraft who miss
   the arresting wires, referred to as a "bolter", to become airborne
   again without the risk of hitting aircraft parked on the forward parts
   of the deck. The angled deck also allows launching of aircraft at the
   same time as others land.
   F/A-18 Hornets on the flight deck of the Nimitz-class supercarrier
   Harry S. Truman
   Enlarge
   F/A-18 Hornets on the flight deck of the Nimitz-class supercarrier
   Harry S. Truman

   The above deck areas of the warship (the bridge, flight control tower,
   and so on) are concentrated to the starboard side of the deck in a
   relatively small area called an "island". Very few carriers have been
   designed or built without an island and such a configuration has not
   been seen in a fleet sized carrier.

   A more recent configuration, used by the British Royal Navy, has a
   'ski-jump' ramp at the forward end of the flight deck. This was
   developed to help launch VTOL (or STOVL) aircraft (aircraft that are
   able to take off and land with little or no forward movement) such as
   the Sea Harrier. Although the aircraft are capable of flying vertically
   off the deck, using the ramp is more fuel efficient. As catapults and
   arrestor cables are unnecessary, carriers with this arrangement reduce
   weight, complexity, and space needed for equipment. The disadvantage of
   the ski jump — and hence, the reason this configuration has not
   appeared on American supercarriers — is the penalty that it exacts on
   aircraft size, payload and fuel load (and hence, range): Large, slow
   planes like the E-2 Hawkeye and heavily-laden strike fighters like the
   F/A-18E/F Super Hornet cannot use a ski jump because their high weight
   requires either a longer takeoff roll than is possible on a carrier
   deck (even on the large Russian aircraft carrier Kuznetsov,
   lightly-loaded Su-33 air superiority fighters require almost the entire
   length of the deck to take off) or catapult assistance.

Common types

   Over the course of the last century there have been several types of
   aircraft carrier, some of which are now obsolete. They can be generally
   categorized as follows:

Initial designs and inter-war developments

     * Balloon carriers were used during in the 19th and early 20th
       century, mainly for observation purposes.
     * Seaplane tenders, such as HMS Engadine, fell out of frontline use
       after the 1920s when carriers capable of handling conventional
       aircraft came into fleets and the superiority of landplanes over
       seaplanes in naval operations became firmly established
     * Standard carriers, such as HMS Ark Royal, typically 20,000 to
       65,000 tonnes. Often known as "fleet carriers"
     * Flying aircraft carrier; an airship that can carry aircraft.
       Examples include USS Akron and Macon

World War II developments

     * Escort aircraft carriers, such as USS Barnes, were built only
       during World War II, and were used by the British Royal Navy and
       U.S. Navy
     * Light aircraft carriers, such as USS Independence, were designed to
       primarily carry fighters
     * CAM ships, such as SS Michael E, cargo carrying merchant ships
       which could launch but not retrieve fighter aircraft. These vessels
       were an emergency measure during World War II
     * Merchant aircraft carriers (MACs), such as MV Empire MacAlpine,
       another emergency measure which saw cargo-carrying merchant ships
       equipped with flight decks
     * Battlecarriers were created by the Imperial Japanese Navy to
       partially compensate for the loss of carrier strength at Midway.
       Two of them were made from Ise class battleships during late 1943.
       The aft turrets were removed and replaced with a hangar, deck and
       catapult. The heavy cruiser Mogami concurrently received a similar
       conversion. With half a flight deck and half of a battleship's
       armament, the ships were singularly worthless and seldom left port.
     * Submarine aircraft carriers, such as the French Surcouf, or the
       Japanese I-400 class submarines which were capable of carrying 3
       Aichi M6A Seiran aircraft. The first of these were built in the
       1920s

   Some cruisers and capital ships of the inter-war years often carried a
   catapult launched seaplane for reconnaissance and spotting the fall of
   the guns. It was launched by a catapult and recovered by crane from the
   water after landing. These were highly successful during World War II;
   there were many notable successes early in the war as shown by HMS
   Warspite’s Walrus during operations in the Norwegian fjords in 1940.
   The Japanese Rufe floatplane derived from the Zero was a formidable
   fighter with only a slight loss in flight performance, one of their
   pilots scored 26 kills in the Rufe; a score only bettered by a handful
   of American pilots throughout WW2. Other Japanese seaplanes launched
   from tenders and warships sank merchant ships and small-scale ground
   attacks. The culmination of the type was the American 300+ mph Curtis
   SC-1 SeaHawk which was actually a fighter aircraft like the Rufe in
   addition to a two-seat gunnery spotter and transport for an injured man
   in a litter. Spotter seaplane aircraft on U.S. Navy cruisers and
   battleships were in service until 1949.

   By World War II, seaplane tenders were no longer considered as the main
   method to project air power at sea due to the lessened flight
   performance of their seaplanes over land and carrier-based planes.
   Carriers could operate conventional aircraft that could fly farther,
   faster, and carry more weapons, all while boasting greater performance.
   However, seaplane tenders in conjunction with PBY Catalina patrol
   bombers could range farther across the oceans than short-range carrier
   planes as the "eyes of the fleet" and rescued thousands of men stranded
   in the water who would have perished otherwise. As the end of the war
   neared, early helicopters were taking over many of the roles of
   seaplanes but at a marked loss in speed, range and flexibility that has
   not been regained to the present day. In the 1950s the aerodynamic
   limitations of seaplanes had finally been overcome; several seaplane
   designs were superior in performance to their land-based counterparts;
   the P-6M Seamaster patrol bomber and R3Y Tradewind "Flying LST"
   transport planes flew faster than the B-52 and the C-130; but in a
   power struggle with the ruling aircraft carrier bureaucracy were
   cancelled despite that their use in conjunction with special seaplane
   tenders would be more tactically and cost effective than large,
   vulnerable aircraft carriers operating shorter ranged and lesser
   payload aircraft.

Post-war developments

     * Amphibious assault carriers, such as USS Tarawa, which often also
       serve the purpose of carrying and landing soldiers and operate a
       large contingent of helicopters for that purpose. Also known as
       "commando carriers" or "helicopter carriers".
     * Anti-submarine warfare carriers, also known as "helicopter
       carriers."
     * Supercarriers, such as USS Nimitz, typically 75,000 tonnes or
       greater. Powered by nuclear reactors and forming the core of a
       fleet designed to operate far from home.

   Many modern warships have helicopter landing capability and helicopter
   assault ships represent a new form of amphibious assault carrier.

History and milestones

   Though aircraft carriers are given their definition with respect to
   fixed-wing aircraft, the first known instance of using a ship for
   airborne operations occurred in 1806, when the British Royal Navy's
   Lord Thomas Cochrane launched kites from the 32-gun frigate HMS Pallas
   in order to drop propaganda leaflets on the French territory.

Balloon carriers

   The Union Army balloon Washington aboard the George Washington Parke
   Custis, towed by the tug Coeur de Lion.
   Enlarge
   The Union Army balloon Washington aboard the George Washington Parke
   Custis, towed by the tug Coeur de Lion.

   On July 12, 1849, the Austrian Navy ship Vulcano launched a manned hot
   air balloon in order to drop bombs on Venice, although the attempt
   failed due to contrary winds.

   Later, during the American Civil War, about the time of the Peninsula
   Campaign, gas-filled balloons were being used to perform reconnaissance
   on Confederate positions, the battles turned inland into the heavily
   forested areas of the Peninsula where balloons could not travel. A coal
   barge, the George Washington Parke Custis, was cleared of all deck
   rigging to accommodate the gas generators and apparatus of balloons.
   From the GWP Prof. Thaddeus S. C. Lowe, Chief Aeronaut of the Union
   Army Balloon Corps, made his first ascents over the Potomac River and
   telegraphed claims of the success of the first aerial venture ever made
   from a water-borne vessel. Other barges were converted to assist with
   the other military balloons transported about the eastern waterways. It
   is only fair to point out in deference to modern aircraft carriers that
   none of these Civil War crafts had ever taken to the high seas.
   The Russian captive balloon carrier Russ in 1904.
   Enlarge
   The Russian captive balloon carrier Russ in 1904.

   Balloons launched from ships led to the development of balloon
   carriers, or balloon tenders, during World War I, by the navies of
   Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, and Sweden. About ten
   such "balloon tenders" were built, their main objective being aerial
   observation posts. These ships were either decommissioned or converted
   to seaplane tenders after the war.

Seaplane carriers

   The first seaplane carrier, the French La Foudre (right, with hangar
   and crane), with one of her Canard Voisin seaplanes taking off, during
   tactical exercises in June 1912.
   Enlarge
   The first seaplane carrier, the French La Foudre (right, with hangar
   and crane), with one of her Canard Voisin seaplanes taking off, during
   tactical exercises in June 1912.

   The invention of the seaplane in March 1910 with the French Le Canard
   led to the earliest development of a ship designed to carry airplanes,
   albeit equipped with floats: in December 1911 appears the French Navy
   La Foudre, the first seaplane carrier, and the first known carrier of
   airplanes. Commissioned as a seaplane tender, and carrying
   float-equipped planes under hangars on the main deck, from where they
   were lowered on the sea with a crane, she participated in tactical
   exercises in the Mediterranean in 1912. La Foudre was further modified
   in November 1913 with a 10 meters flat deck to launch her seaplanes.

   HMS Hermes, temporarily converted as an experimental seaplane carrier
   in April-May 1913, is also one of the first seaplane carriers, and the
   first experimental seaplane carrier of the British Navy. She was
   originally laid down as a merchant ship, but was converted on the
   building stocks to be a seaplane carrier for a few trials in 1913,
   before being converted again to a cruiser, and back again to a seaplane
   carrier in 1914. She served in the Dardanelles campaign and was sunk by
   a German submarine in October 1914. The first seaplane tender of the US
   Navy was the USS Mississippi, converted to that role in December 1913.

Genesis of the flat-deck carrier

   "An airplane-carrying vessel is indispensable. These vessels will be
   constructed on a plan very different from what is currently used. First
   of all the deck will be cleared of all obstacles. It will be flat, as
   wide as possible without jeopardizing the nautical lines of the hull,
   and it will look like a landing field."
   Clément Ader, " L'Aviation Militaire", 1909

   As heavier-than-air aircraft developed in the early 20th century
   various navies began to take an interest in their potential use as
   scouts for their big gun warships. In 1909 the French inventor Clément
   Ader published in his book " L'Aviation Militaire" the description of a
   ship to operate airplanes at sea, with a flat flight deck, an island
   superstructure, deck elevators and a hangar bay. That year the US Naval
   Attaché in Paris sent a report on his observations.
   Ely takes off fromUSS Birmingham, 14 November 1910.
   Enlarge
   Ely takes off from
   USS Birmingham, 14 November 1910.

   A number of experimental flights were made to test the concept. Eugene
   Ely was the first pilot to launch from a stationary ship in November
   1910. He took off from a structure fixed over the forecastle of the US
   armored cruiser USS Birmingham at Hampton Roads, Virginia and landed
   nearby on Willoughby Spit after some five minutes in the air.
   Ely lands on USS Pennsylvania, 18 January 1911.
   Enlarge
   Ely lands on USS Pennsylvania,
   18 January 1911.

   On January 18, 1911 he became the first pilot to land on a stationary
   ship. He took off from the Tanforan racetrack and landed on a similar
   temporary structure on the aft of USS Pennsylvania anchored at the San
   Francisco waterfront — the improvised braking system of sandbags and
   ropes led directly to the arrestor hook and wires described above. His
   aircraft was then turned around and he was able to take off again.
   Commander Charles Samson, RN, became the first airman to take off from
   a moving warship on May 2, 1912. He took off in a Short S27 from the
   battleship HMS Hibernia while she steamed at 10.5 knots (19 km/h)
   during the Royal Fleet Review at Weymouth.
   HMS Ark Royal, a seaplane carrier also equipped with two regular
   airplanes, was arguably the first modern aircraft carrier.
   Enlarge
   HMS Ark Royal, a seaplane carrier also equipped with two regular
   airplanes, was arguably the first modern aircraft carrier.

   HMS Ark Royal was arguably the first modern aircraft carrier. She was
   originally laid down as a merchant ship, but was converted on the
   building stocks to be a hybrid airplane/ seaplane carrier. Launched in
   1914, she served in the Dardanelles campaign and throughout World War
   I.

   The first strike from a carrier against a land target took place on
   July 19, 1918. Seven Sopwith Camels launched from HMS Furious attacked
   the German Zeppelin base at Tondern, with two 50 lb bombs each. Several
   airships and balloons were destroyed, but as the carrier had no method
   of recovering the aircraft safely, two of the pilots ditched their
   aircraft in the sea alongside the carrier while the others headed for
   neutral Denmark.

Inter-war years

   The first full-length flat deck, HMS Argus in 1918
   Enlarge
   The first full-length flat deck, HMS Argus in 1918

   The Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 placed strict limits on the
   tonnages of battleships and battlecruisers for the major naval powers
   after World War I, as well as limits not only on the total tonnage for
   carriers, but also an upper limit on 27,000 tonnes for each ship.
   Although exceptions were made regarding the max ship tonnage (fleet
   units counted, experimental units did not), the total tonnage could not
   be exceeded. However, while all of the major navies were over-tonnage
   on battleships, they were all considerably under-tonnage on aircraft
   carriers. Consequently, many battleships and battlecruisers under
   construction (or in service) were converted into aircraft carriers. The
   first ship to have a full length flat deck was HMS Argus the conversion
   of which was completed in September 1918, with the U.S. Navy not
   following suit until 1920, when the conversion of USS Langley (an
   experimental ship which did not count against America's carrier
   tonnage) had completed. The first American fleet carriers would not
   join the service until 1928 ( USS Lexington and Saratoga).
   The first purpose-designed aircraft carrier to be commisionned, the
   Imperial Japanese Navy's Hōshō, in 1922. Though she was not the first
   purpose designed carrier that construction started on (HMS Hermes was),
   her construction finished sooner. Critics of this claim note the hull
   was still a modifed cruiser type and not a purpose designed hull, as on
   the British ship.
   Enlarge
   The first purpose-designed aircraft carrier to be commisionned, the
   Imperial Japanese Navy's Hōshō, in 1922. Though she was not the first
   purpose designed carrier that construction started on ( HMS Hermes
   was), her construction finished sooner. Critics of this claim note the
   hull was still a modifed cruiser type and not a purpose designed hull,
   as on the British ship.

   The first purpose-designed aircraft carrier to be developed was the HMS
   Hermes, although the first one to be commissioned was the Japanese
   Hōshō (commissioned in December 1922, followed by HMS Hermes in July
   1923). Hermes' design preceded and influenced that of Hōshō, and its
   construction actually began earlier, but numerous tests, experiments
   and budget considerations delayed its commission.

   By the late 1930s, aircraft carriers around the world typically carried
   three types of aircraft: torpedo bombers, also used for conventional
   bombings and reconnaissance; dive bombers, also used for reconnaissance
   (in the U.S. Navy, this type of aircraft were known as "scout
   bombers"); and fighters for fleet defence and bomber escort duties.
   Because of the restricted space on aircraft carriers, all these
   aircraft were of small, single-engined types, usually with folding
   wings to facilitate storage.

Second World War

   Aircraft carriers played a significant role in World War II. With seven
   aircraft carriers afloat, the British Royal Navy had a considerable
   numerical advantage at the start of the war as neither the Germans nor
   the Italians had carriers of their own. However, the vulnerability of
   carriers compared to traditional battleships when forced into a
   gun-range encounter was quickly illustrated by the sinking of HMS
   Glorious by German battlecruisers during the Norwegian campaign in
   1940.

   This apparent weakness to battleships was turned on its head in
   November 1940 when HMS Illustrious launched a long-range strike on the
   Italian fleet at Taranto. This operation incapacitated three of the six
   battleships in the harbour at a cost of two of the 21 attacking Fairey
   Swordfish torpedo bombers. Carriers also played a major part in
   reinforcing Malta, both by transporting planes and by defending convoys
   sent to supply the besieged island. The use of carriers prevented the
   Italian Navy and land-based German aircraft from dominating the
   Mediterranean theatre.

   In the Atlantic, aircraft from HMS Ark Royal and HMS Victorious were
   responsible for slowing Bismarck during May 1941. Later in the war,
   escort carriers proved their worth guarding convoys crossing the
   Atlantic and Arctic oceans.

   Many of the major battles in the Pacific involved aircraft carriers.
   Japan started the war with ten aircraft carriers, the largest and most
   modern carrier fleet in the world at that time. There were six American
   aircraft carriers at the beginning of the hostilities, although only
   three of them were operating in the Pacific.
   Planes from the Japanese aircraft carrier Shokaku preparing the attack
   on Pearl Harbor.
   Enlarge
   Planes from the Japanese aircraft carrier Shokaku preparing the attack
   on Pearl Harbour.

   Drawing on the 1939 Japanese development of low-depth runs for aerial
   torpedoes and the 1940 British aerial attack on the Italian fleet at
   Taranto, the 1941 Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbour was a clear
   illustration of the power projection capability afforded by a large
   force of modern carriers. Concentrating six flattops in a single
   striking unit marked a turning point in naval history, as no other
   nation had fielded anything comparable. (Though Germany and Italy began
   construction of carriers, neither were completed. Of the two, Germany's
   Graf Zeppelin had the greater potential.)

   Meanwhile, the Japanese began their advance through Southeast Asia and
   the sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse by Japanese land-based
   aircraft drove home the need for this ship class for fleet defence from
   aerial attack. In April 1942, the Japanese fast carrier strike force
   ranged into the Indian Ocean and sank shipping, including the damaged
   and undefended carrier HMS Hermes. Smaller Allied fleets with
   inadequate aerial protection were forced to retreat or be destroyed. In
   the Coral Sea, US and Japanese fleets traded aircraft strikes in the
   first battle where neither side's ships sighted the other. At the
   Battle of Midway four Japanese carriers were sunk by planes from three
   American carriers, and the battle is considered the turning point of
   the war in the Pacific.

   Subsequently the US was able to build up large numbers of aircraft
   aboard a mixture of fleet, light and (newly commissioned) escort
   carriers, primarily with the introduction of the Essex class in 1943.
   These ships, around which were built the fast carrier task forces of
   the Third and Fifth Fleets, played a major part in winning the Pacific
   war. The eclipse of the battleship as the primary component of a fleet
   was clearly illustrated by the sinking of the largest battleship ever
   built, Yamato, by carrier-borne aircraft in 1945. Japan also built the
   largest aircraft carrier of the war, Shinano, which, like Yamato, was
   named after a Japanese province.

Wartime innovations

   Japanese carrier Taihō with the hurricane bow.
   Enlarge
   Japanese carrier Taihō with the hurricane bow.

   Combat experience proved that the British invention of the sealed
   "hurricane bow" which protected against storms was superior to any
   other use for the very front of the ship, be it machine-guns or a
   second flight deck. This became standard for British and American
   carriers. The Japanese carrier Taihō was the first of their ships to
   incorporate it.

   Starting late in the war with the Midway class, American carriers had
   grown so large that it was no longer practical to continue the concept
   of designing the hangar deck to be the strength deck, and all
   subsequent American carriers have the flight deck as the strength deck,
   leaving only the island as superstructure.

Light Aircraft Carriers

   The loss of three major carriers in quick succession in the Pacific led
   the US Navy to develop the light carrier (CVL) from light cruiser hulls
   that had already been laid down. These were intended to add fighter
   squadrons to a task force, and were used in the US Navy only during
   World War II. The actual U.S. Navy classification was small aircraft
   carrier (CVL), not light. Prior to July 1943, they were just classified
   as aircraft carriers (CV).

   The British Royal Navy made a similar design which served both them and
   Commonwealth countries after World War II. One of these carriers,
   India's INS Viraat, formerly HMS Hermes, is still being used.

Escort Carriers and Merchant Aircraft Carriers

   To protect Atlantic convoys, the British developed what they called
   Merchant Aircraft Carriers, which were merchant ships equipped with a
   flat deck for half a dozen aircraft. These operated with civilian
   crews, under merchant colors, and carried their normal cargo besides
   providing air support for the convoy. As there was no lift or hangar,
   aircraft maintenance was limited and the aircraft spent the entire trip
   sitting on the deck.

   These served as stop-gap until dedicated escort carriers could be built
   in the US (US classification CVE). About a third of the size of a fleet
   carrier, it carried about two dozen aircraft for anti-submarine duties.
   Over one hundred were built or converted from merchantmen.

   Escort carriers were built in the US from two basic hull designs: one
   from a merchant ship, and the other from a slightly larger, slightly
   faster tanker. Besides defending convoys, these were used to transport
   aircraft across the ocean. Nevertheless, some participated in the
   battles to liberate the Philippines, notably the battle off Samar in
   which six escort carriers and their escorting destroyers briefly took
   on five Japanese battleships and bluffed them into retreating.

Catapult Aircraft Merchantmen

   As an emergency stop-gap before sufficient merchant aircraft carriers
   became available, the British provided air cover for convoys using
   Catapult aircraft merchantman (CAM ships) and merchant aircraft
   carriers. CAM ships were merchant vessels equipped with an aircraft,
   usually a battle-weary Hawker Hurricane, launched by a catapult. Once
   launched, the aircraft could not land back on the deck and had to ditch
   in the sea if it was not within range of land. Over two years, fewer
   than 10 launches were ever made, yet these flights did have some
   success: 6 bombers for the loss of a single pilot.

Post-war developments

   The USS Essex in heavy seas with a post-WW2 angled deck
   Enlarge
   The USS Essex in heavy seas with a post-WW2 angled deck

   Three major post-war developments came from the need to improve
   operations of jet-powered aircraft, which had higher weights and
   landing speeds than their propeller-powered forebearers.

Angled decks

   During the Second World War, aircraft would land on the flight deck
   parallel to the long axis of the ship's hull. Aircraft which had
   already landed would be parked on the deck at the bow end of the flight
   deck. A crash barrier was raised behind them to stop any landing
   aircraft which overshot the landing area because its landing hook
   missed the arrestor cables. If this happened, it would often cause
   serious damage or injury and even, if the crash barrier was not strong
   enough, destruction of parked aircraft.
   An F-14D Tomcat sits poised for launch on one of four steam-powered
   catapults aboard the nuclear powered aircraft carrier USS John C.
   Stennis.
   Enlarge
   An F-14D Tomcat sits poised for launch on one of four steam-powered
   catapults aboard the nuclear powered aircraft carrier USS John C.
   Stennis.
   Landing optics of Charles de Gaulle
   Enlarge
   Landing optics of Charles de Gaulle

   An important development of the early 1950s was the British invention
   of the angled deck, where the runway was canted at an angle of a few
   degrees across the ship. If an aircraft misses the arrestor cables, the
   pilot only needs to increase engine power to maximum to get airborne
   again and will not hit the parked aircraft because the angled deck
   points out over the sea. The USS John C. Stennis is an example of an
   aircraft carrier that utilizes the concept of an angled landing deck.

Steam catapults

   The modern steam-powered catapult, powered by steam from the ship's
   boilers or reactors, was invented by Commander C.C. Mitchell RNVR. It
   was widely adopted following trials on HMS Perseus between 1950 and
   1952 which showed it to be more powerful and reliable than the
   compressed air catapults which had been introduced in the 1930s.

Landing systems

   Another British invention was the glide-slope indicator (also known as
   a "meatball"). This was a gyroscopically-controlled lamp (which used a
   Fresnel lens) on the port side of the deck which could be seen by the
   aviator who was about to land, indicating to him whether he was too
   high or too low in relation to the desired glidepath. It also took into
   account the effect of the waves on the flight deck. The device became a
   necessity as the landing speed of aircraft increased.

Nuclear age

   The US Navy prematurely attempted to become a strategic nuclear force
   with the project to build United States, termed CVA, with the "A"
   signifying "atomic". This ship would have carried twin-propeller
   bombers, each of which could carry an atomic bomb. The project was
   cancelled under pressure from the newly-created United States Air
   Force, and the letter "A" was re-cycled to mean "attack." But this only
   delayed the growth of carriers. Nuclear weapons would put to sea
   despite Air Force objections in 1955 aboard USS Forrestal, and by the
   end of the fifties the Navy had a series of nuclear-armed attack
   aircraft.

   The US Navy also built aircraft carriers powered by nuclear reactors.
   USS Enterprise was the first aircraft carrier to be powered in this way
   and subsequent supercarriers took advantage of this technology to
   increase their endurance. The only other nation to have followed the US
   lead is France with Charles de Gaulle.

Helicopters

   The post-war years also saw the development of the helicopter with
   different capabilities to a fighter aircraft. Whereas fixed-wing
   aircraft are suited to air-to-air combat and air-to-surface attack,
   helicopters are used to transport equipment and personnel and can be
   used in an anti-submarine warfare role with dipped sonar and missiles.

   In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the UK converted some of its old
   carriers into Commando Carriers, sea-going helicopter airfields like
   HMS Bulwark. To militate against the expensive connotations of the term
   "aircraft carrier", the new Invincible class carriers were originally
   designated "through deck cruisers" and were initially helicopter only
   craft to operate as escort carriers. The arrival of the Sea Harrier
   meant they could carry fixed wing aircraft despite their short flight
   deck.

Post-Second World War conflicts

UN carrier operations in the Korean War

   The United Nations command began carrier operations against the North
   Korean Army on July 3, 1950 in response to the invasion of South Korea.
   Task Force 77 consisted at that time of the carriers USS Valley Forge
   and HMS Triumph. Before the armistice of July 27, 1953, 12 U.S.
   carriers served 27 tours in the Sea of Japan as part of the Task Force
   77.

   A second carrier unit, Task Force 95, served as a blockade force in the
   Yellow Sea off the west coast of North Korea. The task force consisted
   of a Commonwealth light carrier ( HMSs Triumph, Theseus, Glory, Ocean,
   and HMAS Sydney) and usually a U.S. escort carrier ( USS Badoeng
   Strait, Bairoko, Point Cruz, Rendova, and Sicily).

   Over 301,000 carrier strikes were flown during the Korean War: 255,545
   by the aircraft of Task Force 77; 25,400 by the Commonwealth aircraft
   of Task Force 95, and 20,375 by the escort carriers of Task Force 95.
   United States Navy and Marine Corps carrier-based combat losses were
   541 aircraft. The Fleet Air Arm lost 86 aircraft in combat, and the
   Fleet Air Arm of Australia 15.

U.S. carrier operations in Southeast Asia

   The United States Navy fought "the most protracted, bitter, and costly
   war" (René Francillon) in the history of naval aviation from August 2,
   1964 to August 15, 1973 in the waters of the South China Sea. Operating
   from two deployment points ( Yankee Station and Dixie Station), carrier
   aircraft supported combat operations in South Vietnam and conducted
   bombing operations in conjunction with the U.S. Air Force in North
   Vietnam under Operations Flaming Dart, Rolling Thunder, and Linebacker.

   21 aircraft carriers (all operational attack carriers during the era
   except John F. Kennedy) deployed to Task Force 77 of the U.S. Seventh
   Fleet, conducting 86 war cruises and operating 9,178 total days on the
   line in the Gulf of Tonkin. 530 aircraft were lost in combat and 329
   more in operational accidents, causing the deaths of 377 naval
   aviators, with 64 others reported missing and 179 taken
   prisoner-of-war. 205 officers and men of the ship's complements of
   three carriers ( Forrestal, Enterprise, and Oriskany) were killed in
   major shipboard fires.

Falklands War

   During the Falklands War the United Kingdom was able to win a conflict
   8,000 miles (13,000 km) from home in large part due to the use of the
   full size carrier HMS Hermes and the smaller HMS Invincible. The
   Falklands showed the value of a VSTOL aircraft — the Hawker-Siddeley
   Harrier (the RN Sea Harrier and press-ganged RAF Harriers) in defending
   the fleet and assault force from shore based aircraft and for attacking
   the enemy. Helicopters from the carriers were used to deploy troops and
   pick up the wounded.

Operations in the Gulf

   The US has also made use of carriers in the Persian Gulf, Afghanistan
   and to protect its interests in the Pacific. During the 2003 invasion
   of Iraq US aircraft carriers served as the primary base of US air
   power. Even without the ability to place significant numbers of
   aircraft in Middle Eastern airbases, the United States was capable of
   carrying out significant air attacks from carrier-based squadrons.
   Recently, US aircraft carriers, such as the USS Ronald Reagan provided
   air support for counter-insurgency operations in Iraq.

Aircraft carriers today

   Four modern aircraft carriers of various types – USS John C. Stennis,
   Charles de Gaulle, HMS Ocean and USS John F. Kennedy — and escort
   vessels on operations in 2002
   Enlarge
   Four modern aircraft carriers of various types – USS John C. Stennis,
   Charles de Gaulle, HMS Ocean and USS John F. Kennedy — and escort
   vessels on operations in 2002

   Aircraft carriers are generally the largest ships operated by navies; a
   Nimitz class carrier powered by two nuclear reactors and four steam
   turbines is 1092 feet (333 m) long and costs about $4.5 billion. The
   United States has the majority of aircraft carriers with a dozen in
   service and a dozen in reserve, and its aircraft carriers are a
   cornerstone of American power projection capability.

   Nine countries maintain aircraft carriers: United States, United
   Kingdom, France, Russia, Italy, India, Spain, Brazil, and Thailand. In
   addition the People's Republic of China's People's Liberation Army Navy
   possesses the former Soviet aircraft carrier Varyag, but most naval
   analysts believe that they have no intention to operate it, but instead
   are using Varyag to learn about carrier operations for future Chinese
   aircraft carriers. Canada, the People's Republic of China, Japan,
   Pakistan, Australia, Chile and Singapore also operate vessels capable
   of carrying and operating multiple helicopters.

   Aircraft carriers are generally accompanied by a number of other ships,
   to provide protection for the relatively unwieldy carrier, to carry
   supplies, and to provide additional offensive capabilities. This is
   often termed a battle group or carrier group, sometimes a carrier
   battle group.

   In the early 21st century, worldwide aircraft carriers are capable of
   carrying about 1250 aircraft. US carriers account for over 1000 of
   these; the second leading country, the United Kingdom fields around 66
   aircraft. The United Kingdom and France are both undergoing a major
   expansion in carrier capability (with a common ship class), but the
   United States will still maintain a very large lead.

Future aircraft carriers

   Several nations which currently possess aircraft carriers are in the
   process of planning new classes to replace current ones.

British Royal Navy

   The Royal Navy is currently planning two new larger STOVL aircraft
   carriers (as yet only known as CVF) to replace the three Invincible
   class carriers currently in service. These two ships are expected to be
   named HMS Queen Elizabeth and HMS Prince of Wales. They will be able to
   operate about 50 aircraft and will have a displacement of around
   60,000 tonnes. The two ships are due to enter service in 2012 and 2015
   respectively. Their primary aircraft complement will be made up of F-35
   Lightning IIs, and their ship's company will number around 1000.

   The two ships will be the largest warships ever built for the Royal
   Navy. Initially to be configured for STOVL operations, the carriers are
   to be adaptable to allow any type of future generation of aircraft to
   operate from them.

Chinese People's Liberation Army Navy

   In June 2005, it was reported by boxun.com that the People's Republic
   of China would build a US$362 million aircraft carrier with a
   displacement of 78,000 tonnes, to be built by the enclosed Jiangnan
   Shipyard in Shanghai.The ship is suppose to carry around 70 4th
   generation jet aircraft (may carry 5th generation jet aircraft when
   available) The report was denied by Chinese defense official Zhang
   Guangqin. Previous talks to purchase an aircraft carrier from Russia
   and France have not borne fruit. On March 10, 2006, People's Liberation
   Army Lt. Gen. Wang Zhiyuan announced that the People's Republic of
   China will research and build an aircraft carrier to develop a CVBG in
   3 to 5 years. Observers say the first carrier would be deployed to
   secure energy supply lines in the South China Sea. Fighters included on
   the carrier may include the J-10B and a modified SU-30MKK.

French Marine Nationale

   The Charles De Gaulle nuclear-powered aircraft carrier.
   Enlarge
   The Charles De Gaulle nuclear-powered aircraft carrier.

   The French Navy has set in motion plans for a second CTOL aircraft
   carrier, to supplement Charles de Gaulle. The design is to be much
   larger, in the range of 65- – 74,000 tonnes, and will not be
   nuclear-powered like Charles de Gaulle. There are plans to buy the
   third carrier of the current Royal Navy design for CATOBAR operations
   (the Thales/BAE Systems design for the Royal Navy is for a STOVL
   carrier which is reconfigureable to CATOBAR operations).

Indian Navy

   India started the construction of a 37,500 tonne, 252 meter-long
   Indigenous Aircraft Carrier in April 2005. The new carrier will cost
   US$762 million and will operate MiG 29K 'Fulcrum', Naval HAL LCA and
   Sea Harrier aircraft along with the Indian-made helicopter HAL Dhruv.
   The ship will be powered by four turbine engines and when completed
   will have a range of 7,500 nautical miles, carrying 160 officers, 1400
   sailors, and 30 aircraft. The carrier is being constructed by a
   state-run shipyard in southern India.

   In 2004, India also bought Admiral Gorshkov from Russia for US$1.5
   billion. It is most likely to be named the INS Vikramaditya, and is
   expected to join the Indian Navy in 2008 after a refit.

Italian Marina Militare

   The construction of the conventional powered Marina Militare STOVL
   aircraft carrier Cavour began in 2001. It is being built by Fincantieri
   of Italy. After much delay, Cavour is expected to enter service in 2008
   to complement the Marina Militare aircraft carrier Giuseppe Garibaldi.
   A second aircraft carrier in the 25-30,000 tonne range is much desired
   by the Italian Navy, to replace the already decommissioned helicopter
   carrier Vittorio Veneto, but for budgetary reasons all further
   development is on hold. It is provisionally called Alcide de Gasperi.

Royal Australian Navy

   The Royal Australian Navy is currently investing in two Canberra class
   large amphibious ships, which will either be the French Mistral class
   or the Spanish Buque de Proyección Estratégica design. While the Navy
   has not considered operating fixed-wing aircraft from the ships, it has
   been suggested by commentators that they also operate aircraft such as
   the F-35B. Both to be in service by 2012.

Russian Navy

   Russian Admiral Kuznetsov
   Enlarge
   Russian Admiral Kuznetsov

   The Russian navy has one operational aircraft carrier, Admiral
   Kuznetsov.

   Russia is currently developing a new aircraft carrier design. They are
   starting from scratch to make a modern model, with the newest available
   materials and electronics. Requirements would be for four aircraft
   carriers - two for the Russian Northern Fleet and two for the Russian
   Pacific Fleet. Construction is set to begin by 2010, and finish in
   around 6 years. The Ulyanovsk supercarrier design is being revised.

Spanish Armada

   Spanish Buque de proyección estratégica
   Enlarge
   Spanish Buque de proyección estratégica

   The project for the 231 meter-long and 25,000-30,000 tonnes
   conventional powered Buque de Proyección Estratégica (Strategic
   projection vessel) for the Spanish navy was approved in 2003, and its
   construction started in August 2005, with the ship-building firm
   Navantia in charge of the project. The Buque de proyección estratégica
   is a vessel designed to operate both as amphibious assault vessel and
   as VSTOL aircraft carrier, depending on the mission assigned. The
   design was made keeping in mind the low-intensity conflicts in which
   the Spanish Armada is going to be involved in the future. When it is
   configured to operate as VSTOL aircraft carrier, the operating range
   will be about 25,000 tonnes, and it will operate a maximum of 30
   Matador AV-8B+, F-35 or a mixed force of both aircraft. The ship is
   provided with a Sky-Jump and a tri-dimensional radar based combat
   system, and she will be the second operating aircraft carrier of the
   Spanish navy after Príncipe de Asturias.

US Navy

   US Navy CVN-21
   Enlarge
   US Navy CVN-21

   The current US Fleet of Nimitz-class carriers are to be followed into
   service (and in some cases replaced) by the CVN-21/CVNX Carrier. It is
   expected that the ships will be larger and will operate more aircraft
   than the 80 or so of Nimitz (though current Carrier air wings number
   about 64), and will also be designed to be less detectable by radar.
   The United States Navy is also looking to make these new carriers more
   automated in an effort to reduce the amount of funding required to
   build and maintain its supercarriers.

Related content

Related lists

     * List of aircraft carriers
          + List of aircraft carriers by country
          + List of aircraft carriers by type
          + List of aircraft carrier classes of the United States Navy
          + List of aircraft carrier deployments
          + List of aircraft carriers in service
     * List of amphibious warfare ships
     * Aircraft carriers in fiction

   Retrieved from " http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_carrier"
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   with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details
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