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Amda Seyon I of Ethiopia

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Historical figures

   Amda Seyon I (also Amde Tsiyon and other variants, Ge'ez ዓምደ ፡ ጽዮን
   ʿāmda ṣiyōn, Amharic āmde ṣiyōn, "Pillar of Zion") was Emperor of
   Ethiopia ( 1314 - 1344; throne name Gebre Mesqel Ge'ez ገብረ ፡ መስቀል gabra
   masḳal, Amh. gebre mesḳel, "slave of the cross"), and a member of the
   Solomonic dynasty. According to the British expert on Ethiopia, Edward
   Ullendorf, "Amde Tseyon was one of the most outstanding Ethiopian kings
   of any age and a singular figure dominating the Horn of Africa in the
   fourteenth century." His conquests of Muslim borderlands greatly
   expanded Ethiopian territory and power in the region, maintained for
   centuries after his death. Amda Seyon asserted the strength of the
   newly (1270) installed Solomonic dynasty and therefore legitimized it.
   These expansions further provided for the spread of Christianity to
   frontier areas, sparking a long era of proselytization and
   Christianization of previously frontier areas.

Ancestry

   It is argued that there is sufficient evidence to show that Amda Seyon
   was the son of Wedem Arad. However, when a deputation of monks led by
   Basalota Mikael accused him of incest for marrying Emperor Wedem Arad's
   concubine Zan Margesa and threatened to excommunicate him, he claimed
   to be the biological son of the Emperor's brother Qidm Asagid; this
   explanation may have had its origins in court gossip. Whatever the
   truth of Amda Seyon's parentage, the Imperial history known as the
   Paris Chronicle records that he expressed his rage at his accusers by
   beating one of them, Abbot Anorewos of Segaja, and exiling the other
   ecclesiastics to Dembiya and Begemder.

   It is not known how Amda Seyon became Emperor, but there are a few
   pieces of information that indicate that he may have been involved in
   the succession struggle against Wedem Arad.

Army

   Emperor Amda Seyon's army was remarkably similar to the organization of
   the army during ancient Aksumite times. Amda Seyon's army consisted of
   two parts: the first, his central army, was very effective and closely
   attached to the royal Court; the second was a massive local militia
   raised in times of local crises. These local units would, as in
   Aksumite times, form a distinctive unit and fight together, maintaining
   their local character and were divided into smaller units each headed
   by a local ruler. Though these local units were largely out of the
   direct control of Amda Seyon, during his reign, the control of vassal
   contingents enjoyed by the Emperor increased greatly and would continue
   until the invasion of Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi in the 16th century.

   The central army was divided into independent regiments, each with its
   own specialized name, such as Qeste-Nihb, Hareb Gonda, and Tekula. The
   independent regiments competed for the king's favour, who "raised" and
   "nourished" them from childhood. The regiments were led by an
   intimately loyal commander directly responsible to Amda Seyon. His own
   son, Saf-Asegid, commanded on of these divisions, as did Amda Seyon's
   brother-in-law. Moreover, the commander of Qeste-Nihb, Simishehal,
   along with his colleague Inze-Aygeb, are described as the "most
   beloved" officers of the Emperor, who is distressed when he learns of
   their injury at the Battle of Hagera. The specialized regiments tied
   their fortune to that of the Emperor and were most likely taken from
   the best soldiers from around the country. Amda Seyon used them
   whenever quick action had to be taken, and their regiment commanders
   would often serve the role of governor in times of crises in certain
   provinces, as did Digna, the right-wing commander of the cavalry
   regminet Korem in 1332 in in Tigray. His central army further consisted
   of regional regiments similar to those of his local militias. They were
   drawn mainly from newly conquered provinces and shared a cultural and
   linguistic heritage. The soldiers were probably mainly drawn from
   prisoners taken in the conquests, though some were undoubtedly kept as
   servants to the royal court, while others were exported to slave
   markets or given to private citizens. Those who were to serve the
   Emperor were given military training, probably under a commander from
   the same region and loyal to the Emperor. Most of these groups were
   broken down into smaller sections due to their size; for instance, in
   Amda Seyon's 1332 (or 1329) campaigns, a division of Damot fought the
   Beta Israel in the north, while another went to fight in the campaigns
   in the south against Ifat and the Muslims.

   The Emperor improved the imperial army, which until his reign was not
   as heavily armed as his Muslim adversaries. The 14th century Arab
   historian al-Umari noted regarding Ethiopian troops that

          "their weapons of war are the bow with arrows resembling the
          nussab; swords, spears and lances. Some warriors fight with
          swords and with narrow and long shields. But their principal
          weapon is the spear which resembles a long lance. There are some
          [warriors] who fling darts which are [similar to] short arrows,
          with a long bow resembling a cross-bow."

   Despite the wide variety of weapons ascribed to the Ethiopian troops by
   al-Umari, swords and daggers were not often used by the Ethiopian army,
   which was mainly armed with bows, spears, and shields for defense,
   along with mounted soldiers. The Muslims, however, are described as
   having "swords, daggers, iron sticks [dimbus]" and other weapons useful
   in close quarters, and al-Umari notes that "the arrows of the warriors
   of the Muslim borderlands are bigger" than those of the Solomonic army.
   The Ethiopian army's strength was therefore mainly numerical but Amda
   Seyon did much to improve his army, increasing the use of swords and
   daggers (probably obtained through Muslim traders), and created a
   special regiment armed with swords. The Emperor also formed a special
   regiment of shield-bearers that was probably used to guard his archers,
   further increasing the effectiveness of his army.

Early military actions

   Map of medieval Ethiopian provinces, with sub-provinces in smaller
   lettering and neighboring tribes in italics.
   Enlarge
   Map of medieval Ethiopian provinces, with sub-provinces in smaller
   lettering and neighboring tribes in italics.

   Taddesse Tamrat reports that he found a contemporary note written in a
   manuscript now kept in the island monastery of Lake Hayq, which
   mentions that in 1309 AM (AD 1316/ 1317), Emperor Amda Seyon
   successfully campaigned against the Muslim kingdoms of Damot and
   Hadiya. The note describes his conquest first of Damot, many of whose
   people he exiles to another area, and then of Hadiya, to whose people
   he does likewise. Though his early control of the regions was minimal,
   it is evident by 1332 (or 1329) that Hadiya had been fully integrated,
   providing troops for his 1332 campaigns against Ifat. The King of
   Hadiya, Amano, refused to visit the Emperor and give his tribute,
   encouraged by, according to Amda Seyon's chronicler, a Muslim "prophet
   of darkness" named Bel'am. According to the Emperor's Chronicle, Bel'am
   told him to rebel:

          Go not to the king of Seyon [i.e. Ethiopia]. Do not give him
          gifts: if he comes against you, be not afraid of him, for he
          will be delivered into your hands and you will cause him to
          perish with his army.

   The Emperor was infuriated, invading Hadiya and killed many people,
   taking prisoner Amano along with many of its inhabitants. Bel'am,
   however was able to escape the Emperor by fleeing to Ifat. These
   conquests represent a significant advancement of Amda Seyon's eventual
   goal of controlling the inland trade previously controlled by the
   Muslims in Ifat and farther east. Hadiya's conquest deeply affected the
   slave trade and consequently hurt the trade and wealth of the eastern
   Muslim provinces. For the first time, the Muslim presence in the region
   was threatened, which later resulted in alliances between the Muslim
   provinces (which often rebelled) when they had previously acted more
   independently of each other.

   In the same year as his campaigns against the southern regions of Damot
   and Hadiya, the Emperor also campaigned against the more northerly
   province of Gojjam.

Northern campaigns

   After his 1316/7 campaigns in the south, Amda Seyon had to turn north
   to to strengthen his control over areas that had in the meanwhile
   gained more autonomy. The northern Tigrayan province of Inderta had
   increasingly been asserting its independence since the Solomonic
   restoration under Yekuno Amlak in 1270. During Yekuno Amlak's time, the
   governor of Inderta was Ingida Igzi' who was succeeded by his son,
   Tesfane Igzi. As governor of Inderta, Tesfane Igzi' had the most power
   among the northern provinces and held the title Hasgwa and Aqabé
   Tsentsen ('keeper of the fly whisks - an ancient Aksumite title) and
   threatened the Amhara-based lineage currently in power. As early as
   1305, Tesfane Igzi' referred to Inderta as "his kingdom," his son and
   successor, Ya'ibika Igzi, did not even mention the Emperor in his
   1318/9 land grant. Ya'ibika Igzi eventually rebelled, unsuccessfully
   inviting the governor of nearby Tembien to join him. Amda Seyon
   responded swiftly, killing the governor, dividing the titles, and
   appointing them to different individuals of lowly origin. The Emperor's
   appointees were unpopular, described as "men who were not born from
   Adam and Eve who were called Halestiyotat," a term literally meaning
   "bastard of mixed or low origins". To consolidate his control in the
   region, Amda Seyon established a military colony of non- Tigrayan
   troops at Amba Senayata, the centre of the rebellion, and appointed his
   Tigrayan wife, Queen Bilén Saba, as governor of Inderta, along with a
   new batch of officials below her. The Queen ruled rather indirectly,
   however, which caused some resentment in the province, inducing the
   Emperor to appoint one of his sons, Bahr Seged as governor, who was
   later in 1328 also given control of the maritime provinces under the
   title of Ma'ikele Bahr ("Between the Rivers/Seas").

   In 1329, the Emperor campaigned in the northern provinces of Semien,
   Wogera, Tselemt, and Tsegedé, in which many had been converting to
   Judaism and where the Beta Israel had been gaining prominence.

   Amda Seyon was also wary of Muslim power along the Red Sea coast and
   therefore headed to the northern area of Tigray province bordering the
   Red Sea:

          "I, King Amdä-ṣiyon, went to the sea of Eritrea [i.e. "Red"].
          When I reached there, I mounted on an elephant and entered the
          sea. I took up my arrow and spears, killed my enemies, and saved
          my people."

   During his campaign, the Emperor also met the famous monk Ewostatewos,
   who was on his way to Armenia.

Rebellion of Haqq ad-Din I

   Around 1320, the Mamluk sultan of Egypt, An-Nasir Muhammad ibn Qala'un
   began persecuting Egyptian Copts and destroying their chuches. Amda
   Seyon subsequently sent a mission to Cairo in 1321-2 threatening to
   retaliate against the Muslims in his kingdom and divert the course of
   the Nile if the sultan did not end his persecution. Though Al-Nasir
   Muhammad ignored the envoys, fear of the diversion of the Nile in Egypt
   would continue for centuries. As a result of the dispute and threats,
   Haqq ad-Din ibn Muhammad ibn 'Ali, governor of the Muslim province of
   Ifat, seized and imprisoned a member of the envoy sent by the Emperor
   named Ti`yintay on his way back from Cairo. Haqq ad-Din tried to
   convert Ti`yintay, killing him when this failed. According to Amda
   Seyon's royal chronicler, the Emperor responded by invading Ifat
   accompanied by, according to the chronicle, only seven horsemen, and
   killed many of the rebelling governor's soldiers. Part of the army then
   followed him and destroyed the province's capital, Ifat, and Amda Seyon
   took much of its wealth in the form of gold, silver, bronze, lead, and
   clothing. Amda Seyon continued his reprisal throughout all of his
   Muslim provinces, pillaging Kuelgore, Bequlzar, Gidaye, Kubet, Fedsé
   Qedsé, Hargaye (the latter five yet unidentified), and Shewa, then
   populated mainly by Muslims, taking livestock, killing many
   inhabitants, destroying towns, and taking prisoners, who were later
   assimilated.

   As a result of Amda Seyon's reprisals, other Muslim provinces rebelled,
   seeing that his army had become weak from the long campaigns. The
   people of Gebel (or Werjih), reportedly "very skilled in warfare,"
   subsequently revolted and pillaged some Christian regions. The people
   of Medra Zega and Manzih ( Menz), then Muslims, also revolted,
   surrounding and attacking the Emperor, who defeated them and killed
   their commander Dedadir, a son of Haqq ad-Din.

Later campaigns

Causes

   The most important primary source for his reign, The Glorious
   Victories, describes the extensive military campaigns Amda Seyon
   undertook in the plains drained by the Awash River. Beginning on 24
   Yakatit (= 18 February), Emperor Amda Seyon led this army against a
   number of enemies; another document, referring to this year, states
   that he defeated 10 kings. Rebellion in the Muslim provinces stemed
   from the threat to Islam by Amda Seyon, magnified by the earlier loss
   of trade from his campaigns This defiance was encouraged and perhaps
   even instigated by religious leaders in Ifat and other Muslim
   provinces. The "false prophet" reported as having fled from Hadiya
   during the 1316/7 campaigns continued spreading propaganda against the
   king in Ifat, where he was one of Sabr ad-Din's advisors. The chronicle
   states that:

          "The false prophet fled to the land of Ifat and lived there
          propagating his false teaching... And when Säbrädīn asked him
          for counsil he told him saying: 'The kingdom of the Christians
          has now come to an end; and it has been given to us, for you
          will reign on in Siyon [i.e. Ethiopia]. Go, ascend [the
          mountains], and fight the king of the Christians; you will
          defeat him, and rule him together with his peoples.'"

   A second religious leader is noted as having fomented trouble in the
   region, specifically in Adal and Mora. He is called "Salīh whose title
   was Qazī (which it notes is a title similar to an Archbishop), and is
   described as being revered and feared like God by the kings and rulers
   in the region. The chronicle ascribes blame to Salīh, stating that it
   was he "who gathered the Muslim troops, kings, and rulers" against the
   Emperor.

   As a result of these instigations and conditions, Sabr ad-Din I,
   governor of Ifat as well as brother and successor to Haqq ad-Din,
   showed defiance to Amda Seyon by confiscated some of the Emperor's
   goods in transit from the coast (i.e. Zeila), similar to what his
   brother had done before him. Amda Seyon was furious with Sabr ad-Din,
   saying to him:

          "You took away the commodities belonging to me obtained in
          exchange for the large quantity of gold and silver I had
          entrusted to the merchants... you imprisoned the traders who did
          business for me."

First Ifat rebellion

   Sabr ad-Din's rebellion was an attempt not to become independent, but
   to become emperor of a Muslim Ethiopia. Amda Seyon's royal chronicle
   states that Sabr ad-Din proclaimed:

          "I wish to be King of all Ethiopia; I will rule the Christians
          according to their law and I will destroy their churches...I
          will nominate governors in all the provinces of Ethiopa, as does
          the King of Zion...I will transform the churches into mosques. I
          will subjugate and convert the King of the Christians to my
          religion, I will make him a provincial governor, and if he
          refuses to be converted I will hand him over to one of the
          shephards, called Warjeke [i.e. Werjih], that he may be made a
          keeper of camels. As for the Queen Jan Mangesha, his wife, I
          will employ her to grind corn. I will make my residence at
          Marade [i.e. Tegulet], the capital of his kingdom.

   In fact, after his first incursion, Sabr ad-Din appointed governors for
   nearby and neighboring provinces such as Fetegar and Alamalé (i.e.
   Aymellel, part of the " Guragé country"), as well as far-off provinces
   in the north like Damot, Amhara, Angot, Inderta, Begemder, and Gojjam.
   He also threatened to plant chat at the capital, a stimulant used by
   Muslims but forbidden to Ethiopian Orthodox Christians.

   Sabr ad-Din's rebellion, with its religious support and lofty goals,
   was threfore seen as a jihad, rather than an attempt at independence,
   and it was consequently immediately joined by the nearby Muslim
   province of Dewaro (the first known mention of the province), under the
   governor Haydera, and the western province of Hadiya under the vassal
   local ruler Ameno. Sabr ad-Din divided his troops three ways, sending a
   division north-westwards to attack Amhara, one northwards to attack
   Angot, and another, under his personal command, westward to take Shewa.

   Amda Seyon subsequently mobilized his soldiers to meet the threat,
   endowing them with gifts of gold, silver, and lavish clothing - so much
   so that the chronicler explains that "in his reign gold and silver
   abounded like stones and fine clothes were as common as the leaves of
   the trees or the grass in the fields." Despite the extravagance he
   bestowed on his men, many chose not to fight due to the inhospitability
   of Ifat's mountainous and arid terrain and the complete absence of
   roads. Nevertheless, they proceeded on 24 Yakatit, and an attachment
   was able to find the rebellious governor and put him to flight. Once
   the remainder of Amda Seyon's army arrived, they destroyed the capital
   and killed many soldiers, yet Sabr ad-Din once again escaped. Amda
   Seyon's forces then grouped together for a final attack, destroying one
   of his camps, killing many men, women, and children, taking the rest as
   prisoner, as well as looting it of its gold, silver, and its "fine
   clothes and jewels without number."

   Sabr ad-Din subsequently sued for peace, appealing to Queen Jan
   Mengesha, who refused his peace offer and expressed Amda Seyon's
   determination not to return to his capital until he had searched Sabr
   ad-Din out. Upon hearing this, Sabr ad-Din realized that his rebellion
   futile and surrendered himself to Amda Seyon's camp. Amda Seyon's
   courtiers demanded that Sabr ad-Din be executed, but he instead granted
   him relative clemency and had the rebellious governor imprisoned. Amda
   Seyon then appointed the governor's brother, Jamal ad-Din I, as his
   successor in Ifat. Just as the Ifat rebellion had been quelled,
   however, the neighboring provinces of Adal and Mora just north of Ifat
   decided to rebel. Amda Seyon soon also put down this rebellion.

Conquest of Adal and Second Ifat rebellion

   After much campaigning, Amda Seyon's troops were exhausted and wished
   to return to their respective homes, pleading that the rainy season was
   soon approaching. Amda Seyon refused, however, saying to them:

          "Do not repeat in front me what you have just said, for I will
          not leave so long as the ungodly Muslims make war on me, who am
          the King of all the Muslims of Ethiopia, and I have confidence
          in the help of God.

   The new governor of Ifat also beseeched him to return, giving him many
   gifts, stating that his country was ruined and begging him not to
   "ravage it again," so that its inhabitants may recover and work the
   land for the Emperor. He promised him that if he left that Ifat and its
   inhabitants would serve the Emperor with their trade and tribute and
   that the he and the Muslims of Ethiopia were the Emperor's servants.
   Amda Seyon rejected the governor's pleas, declaring:

          "While I am attacked by wolves and dogs, by the sons of vipers
          and children of evil who do not believe in the Son of God, I
          will never return to my kingdom, and if I leave without going as
          far as Adal I am no longer the son of my mother; let me no more
          be called a man, but a woman."

   Amda Seyon continued and made camp, after which he was attacked twice
   in skirmishes before making camp during the night. The Muslims returned
   once, this time during the night, more in much greater number and
   attacked him with an army from the seven "great towns" (i.e. districts)
   of Adal, Gebela, Lebekela, Mora, Paguma, and Tiqo. During the battle,
   Amda Seyon was struck from the rear by an enemy's sword, cutting his
   girdle around his waist and his battle dress, but the Emperor was able
   to turn and kill the attacker with his spear before he could act. Amda
   Seyon emerged victorious from the battle and sent the troops that had
   not fought to pursue the surviving enemies. They were able to reach the
   survivors on the banks of a nearby river by morning and kill themm,
   taking with them many swords, bows, spears, and clothes.

   Jamal ad-Din, despite being his appointee, also joined the rebellion,
   collaborating with the ruler of Adel to encircle the Emperor, to which
   the ruler of Adal responded by mobilizing his forces. The Ethiopian
   army was encircled by the two armies in the Battle of Das, but Amda
   Seyon was able to defeat them, despite being ill. He then led his army
   against Talag, the current capital of Adal, where the brother of the
   governor of Adal and three of the governor's sons surrendered. The
   Emperor then defeated another governor-king, retraced his steps,
   returning to Bequlzar in Ifat, where he commanded Jamal ad-Din to
   deliver unto him all of the province's apostate Christians. The Emperor
   was first given the priests, deacons, and soldiers, who were each given
   30 lashes and imprisoned as slaves. He then turned to the other
   traitors, whom Jamal ad-Din refused to hand over. Amda Seyon again
   ravaged Ifat and deposed Jamal ad-Din, appointing Nasir ad-Din, another
   brother of Sabr ad-Din, as governor.

   Having finished campaigning in Ifat, he took his army to the town of
   Gu'ét, where he killed many men and captured numerous women and cattle.
   The Emperor then continued modern Somaliland, where he defeated an
   attack by the people of Harla. Amda Seyon then proceeded to the town of
   Dilhoya. The town had previously deposed his governor by immolation,
   along with other Christian men and women, to which the Emperor
   responded by taking and looting the town and their livestock, as well
   as killing many of its inhabitants. He continued to Degwi, killing
   numerous neighboring Werjih pastoralists, who had previously revolted
   and pillaged some Christian areas earlier in his reign. The chronicle
   described the people as "very wicked," as they "neither knew God nor
   feared men". Then, before the end of the month of December, Amda Seyon
   ravaged the land of Sharkha and imprisoned its governor Yosef. These
   efforts extended Ethiopian rule for the first time across the Awash
   River, gaining control of Dawaro, Bale, and other Muslim states.

Dates

   The year when these extensive military actions occurred is disputed. In
   his translation of The Glorious Victories, G.W.B. Huntingford notes
   that Amda Seyon is recorded as celebrating Easter on 28 Miyazya (= 24
   April in 1329), which would best fit the year 1329. Taddesse Tamrat, on
   the other hand, points to another document which dates Amda Seyon's
   18th regnal year to 498 Year of Grace, which confirms that the year 516
   in The Glorious Victories is correct and that the campaigns took place
   in AD 1332.

Trade and culture

   Trade flourished under Amda Seyon. Archeological investigations in the
   treasuries of Ethiopian churches and monasteries have recovered coins,
   textiles and other objects that prove the existence of trade with the
   Byzantine Empire. Taddesse Tamrat also notes that he had a Syrian
   secretary from a Christian family of Damascus, who helped him keep in
   close touch with events in the Middle East.

   Some of the earliest works of Ethiopian literature were written during
   Amda Seyon's reign. Perhaps the best known is the Kebra Nagast, which
   was translated from Arabic at the request of Yaebika Egzi'e, governor
   of Inderta. Other works from this period include the Mashafa Mestira
   Samay Wamedr ("The Book of the Mysteries of Heaven and Earth") written
   by Yeshaq of Debre Gol, and the Zena Eskender ("History of Alexander
   the Great"), a romance wherein Alexander the Great becomes a Christian
   saint. Also worth mentioning is that four of the Soldiers Songs were
   composed during the reign of Amda Seyon, and are the earliest existing
   examples of Amharic. Moreover, Amda Seyon is the first king recorded as
   having donated to the library of the Ethiopian community at Jerusalem.

Citations

    1. ^ Cited in Paul B. Henze, Layers of Time, A History of Ethiopia
       (New York: Palgrave, 2000), p. 63
    2. ^ Joanna Mantel-Niećko and Denis Nosnitsin, "^cAmdä Ṣəyon I" in
       Siegbert von Uhlig, Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C
       (Wiesbaden:Harrassowitz Verlag, 2003), p.228.
    3. ^ Mantel-Niećko and Nosnitsin, "^cAmdä Ṣəyon I" in Encylopaedia,
       p.228
    4. ^ G.W.B. Huntingford, The Glorious Victories of Amda Seyon, King of
       Ethiopia (Oxford: University Press, 1965), pp. 6ff.
    5. ^ Joanna Mantel-Niećko and Denis Nosnitsin, "Amdä ṣeyon I" in
       Siegbert Herausgegeben von Uhlig, ed., Encyclopaedia Aethiopica:
       A-C (Wiesbaden:Harrassowitz Verlag, 2003), pp.227.
    6. ^ Taddesse Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia (1270-1527)
       (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), pp.89.
    7. ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Taddesse, Church and State, pp.90.
    8. ^ Pankhurst, Ethiopian Royal Chronicles, pp.
    9. ^ ^a ^b ^c Taddesse, Church and State, pp.91.
   10. ^ ^a ^b Taddesse, Church and State, pp.90n.
   11. ^ ^a ^b Taddesse, Church and State, pp.92.
   12. ^ ^a ^b ^c Taddesse, Church and State, pp.93.
   13. ^ ^a ^b Taddesse, Church and State, pp.94.
   14. ^ Taddesse, Church and State, pp. 135ff.
   15. ^ ^a ^b Pankhurst, Richard. The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in
       Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century
       (Asmara, Eritrea: The Red Sea, Inc., 1997), pp.78.
   16. ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Taddesse, Church and State, pp.137.
   17. ^ ^a ^b Taddesse, Church and State, pp.73.
   18. ^ Mantel-Niećko and Nosnitsin, "Amdä ṣeyon I" in von Uhlig,
       Encyclopaedia.
   19. ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Taddesse Church and State, pp.74.
   20. ^ ^a ^b ^c Pankhurst, Borderlands, pp.79.
   21. ^ ^a ^b Taddesse, Church and State, pp.77.
   22. ^ Pankhurst, Borderlands, pp.40.
   23. ^ Pankhurst, Borderlands, pp.41.
   24. ^ J. Spencer Trimingham, Islam in Ethiopia (Oxford: Geoffrey
       Cumberlege for the University Press, 1952), p. 71.
   25. ^ Huntingford, The Glorious Victories, p. 5.
   26. ^ Taddesse, Church and State, pp.138.
   27. ^ Pankhurst. Ethiopian Borderlands, pp.41
   28. ^ Pankhurst, Richard K.P. The Ethiopian Royal Chronicles. Addis
       Ababa: Oxford University Press, Inc., 1967, pp.15.
   29. ^ Pankhurst, Borderlands, pp.42.
   30. ^ Pankhurst, Borderlands, pp.43.
   31. ^ Pankhurst, Ethiopian Royal Chronicles, pp.16.
   32. ^ ^a ^b Pankhurst, Borderlands, pp.43.
   33. ^ Pankhurst, Borderlands, pp.44.
   34. ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Pankhurst, Ethiopian Royal Chronicles, pp.18.
   35. ^ Pankhurst, Ethiopian Royal Chronicles, pp.19-20.
   36. ^ Pankhurst, Ethiopian Royal Chronicles, pp.20.
   37. ^ ^a ^b ^c Pankhurst, Ethiopian Royal Chronicles, pp.45.
   38. ^ Huntingford, The Glorious Victories, passim.
   39. ^ Huntingford, The Glorious Victories, pp. 53.
   40. ^ Taddesse, Church and State, pp.138 n.2. (He also states that he
       disagrees with Huntingford over many of the geographical
       identifications, p. 139 n.4.)
   41. ^ Taddesse, Church and State, pp.89.
   42. ^ Taddesse, Church and state, pp.251.
   43. ^ Pankhurst, Ethiopian Royal Chronicles, pp.23.
   44. ^ Taddesse, Church and State, pp.91n.

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