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Battle of Normandy

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: World War II

   Normandy Campaign
   Part of World War II
   Assault landing. One of the first waves at Omaha Beach. The U.S. Coast
   Guard caption identifies the unit as Company E, 16th Infantry, 1st
   Infantry Division.

     Date   June 6, 1944 – August 25, 1944
   Location Normandy, France
    Result  Allied victory
   Combatants
   United States
   United Kingdom
   Canada
   Free France
   Poland Germany
   Commanders
   Dwight Eisenhower
   ( Supreme Allied Commander)
   Bernard Montgomery (land)
   Bertram Ramsay (sea)
   Trafford Leigh-Mallory (air) Gerd von Rundstedt (OB WEST)
   Erwin Rommel (absent) ( Heeresgruppe B)
   Friedrich Dollmann ( 7.Armee)
   Strength
   326,000 (by June 11) Unknown, probably some 1,000,000 in France by
   early June, but split up over the entire region
   Casualties
   United States: 29,000 dead, 106,000 wounded and missing;
   United Kingdom: 11,000 dead, 54,000 wounded and missing;
   Canada: 5,000 dead; 13,000 wounded and missing;
   France: 12,200 civilian dead and missing 200,000 dead, wounded and
   missing; 200,000 captured
   Battle of Normandy
   Sword – Juno – Gold – Omaha – Utah – Pointe du Hoc – Brécourt Manor –
   Chicago – Villers-Bocage – Cherbourg – Epsom – Goodwood – Atlantic –
   Spring – Cobra – Bluecoat – Lüttich – Totalise – Tractable – Falaise –
   Brest – Paris
                      Western European Campaign
   Normandy - Dragoon - Siegfried Line - Ardennes Offensive - Elbe
                      Western Front (World War II)
   France - The Netherlands - Dunkirk - Britain - Dieppe -
   Villefranche-de-Rouergue - Normandy - Dragoon - Arnhem - Scheldt -
   Hurtgen Forest - Aachen - Bulge - Plunder - Varsity - Aintree

   The Battle of Normandy was fought in 1944 between Nazi Germany in
   Western Europe and the invading Allied forces as part of the larger
   conflict of World War II. Over sixty years later, the Normandy
   invasion, codenamed Operation Overlord, still remains the largest
   seaborne invasion in history, involving almost three million troops
   crossing the English Channel from England to Normandy in then
   German-occupied France.

   The primary Allied formations that saw combat in Normandy came from the
   United States of America, United Kingdom and Canada. Substantial Free
   French and Polish forces also participated in the battle after the
   assault phase, and there were also contingents from Belgium,
   Czechoslovakia, Greece, the Netherlands, and Norway.

   The Normandy invasion began with overnight parachute and glider
   landings, massive air attacks and naval bombardments, and an early
   morning amphibious assault on June 6, “ D-Day”. The battle for Normandy
   continued for more than two months, with campaigns to establish,
   expand, and eventually break out of the Allied beachheads, and
   concluded with the liberation of Paris and the fall of the Falaise
   pocket in late August 1944.

   The battle of Normandy was described thus by Adolf Hitler : “In the
   East, the vastness of space will… permit a loss of territory… without
   suffering a mortal blow to Germany’s chance for survival. Not so in the
   West! If the enemy here succeeds… consequences of staggering
   proportions will follow within a short time.”

Prelude

Allied preparations

   Invasion training in England - Hitting the beach.
   Enlarge
   Invasion training in England - Hitting the beach.
   Training with live ammunition in England.
   Enlarge
   Training with live ammunition in England.
   Eisenhower speaks with U.S. paratroops of the 502d Parachute Infantry
   Regiment, 101st Airborne Division on the evening of June 5, 1944.
   Enlarge
   Eisenhower speaks with U.S. paratroops of the 502d Parachute Infantry
   Regiment, 101st Airborne Division on the evening of June 5, 1944.

   After the 1941 German invasion of the Soviet Union ( Operation
   Barbarossa), the Soviets had done the bulk of the fighting against
   Germany on the European mainland. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and
   Prime Minister Winston Churchill had committed the United States and
   the United Kingdom to opening up a “second front” in Europe to aid in
   the Soviet advance on Germany, initially in 1942, and again in spring
   1943.

   The British, under Churchill, wished to avoid the costly frontal
   assaults of World War I. Churchill and the British staff favoured a
   course of allowing the insurgency work of the SOE to come to widespread
   fruition, while themselves making a main Allied thrust from the
   Mediterranean to Vienna and into Germany from the south. Such an
   approach was also believed to offer the advantage of creating a barrier
   to limit the Soviet advance into Europe. However, the U.S. believed
   from the onset that the optimum approach was the shortest route to
   Germany emanating from the strongest Allied power base. They were
   adamant in their view and made it clear that it was the only option
   they would support in the long term. Two preliminary proposals were
   drawn up: Operation Sledgehammer, for an invasion in 1942, and
   Operation Roundup, for a larger attack in 1943, which was adopted and
   became Operation Overlord, although it was delayed until 1944.

   The planning process was started in earnest in March 1943 by British
   Lieutenant-General Sir Frederick Morgan, who was nominated Chief of
   Staff to the Supreme Allied Commander (or COSSAC for short). His plan
   was later adopted and refined starting in January 1944 by SHAEF
   (Supreme Headquarters, Allied Expeditionary Force), led by General
   Dwight David Eisenhower.

   The short operating range of Allied fighters, including the British
   Spitfire and Typhoon, from UK airfields greatly limited the choices of
   amphibious landing sites. Geography reduced the choices further to two
   sites: the Pas de Calais and the Normandy coast. Because the Pas de
   Calais offered the shortest distance to the European mainland from the
   UK, the best landing beaches, and the most direct overland route to
   Germany, it was the most heavily fortified and defended landing site.
   Consequently, the Allies chose Normandy for the invasion.

   In part because of lessons learned by Allied troops in the raid on
   Dieppe of 19 August 1942, the Allies decided not to assault a French
   seaport directly in their first landings. Landings in force on a broad
   front in Normandy would permit simultaneous threats against the port of
   Cherbourg, coastal ports further west in Bretagne, and an overland
   attack towards Paris and towards the border with Germany. Normandy was
   a less-defended coast and an unexpected but strategic jumping-off
   point, with the potential to confuse and scatter the German defending
   forces.

   It was not until November 1943 that General Dwight David Eisenhower was
   appointed Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force,
   effectively giving him overall charge of the Allied forces in Western
   Europe. In January 1944, General Sir Bernard Montgomery was named as
   commander of the 21st Army Group, to which all of the invasion ground
   forces belonged, and also in charge of developing the invasion plan.

   At that stage the COSSAC plan proposed a landing from the sea by three
   divisions, with two brigades landed by air. Montgomery quickly
   increased the scale of the initial attack to five divisions by sea and
   three by air, reflected in the plans for an additional assault at Utah
   Beach. In total, 47 divisions would be committed to the Battle of
   Normandy: 19 British, 5 Canadian and 1 Polish divisions under overall
   British command, and 21 American divisions with 1 Free French division,
   totaling 140,000 troops. On 7 April and 15 May Montgomery presented his
   strategy for the invasion at St Paul’s School. He envisaged a ninety
   day battle, ending when all the forces reached the Seine, pivoting on
   an Allied-held Caen, with British and Canadian armies forming a
   shoulder and the U.S. armies wheeling to the right.
   U.S. soldiers march through Weymouth, a southern English coastal town,
   en route to board landing ships for the invasion of France.
   Enlarge
   U.S. soldiers march through Weymouth, a southern English coastal town,
   en route to board landing ships for the invasion of France.

   About 6,900 vessels would be involved in the invasion under the command
   of Admiral Sir Bertram Ramsay (who had been directly involved in the
   North African and Italian landings), including 4,100 landing craft.
   12,000 aircraft under Air Marshal Sir Trafford Leigh-Mallory were to
   support the landings, including 1,000 transports to fly in the
   parachute troops. 10,000 tons of bombs would be dropped against the
   German defenses, and 14,000 attack sorties would be flown.

   The objective for the first 40 days was to create a lodgement that
   would include the cities of Caen and Cherbourg (especially Cherbourg,
   for its deep-water port). Subsequently, there would be a break out from
   the lodgement to liberate Brittany and its Atlantic ports, and to
   advance to a line roughly 125 miles (190 km) to the southwest of Paris,
   from Le Havre through Le Mans to Tours, so that after ninety days the
   allies would control a zone bounded by the rivers Loire in the south
   and Seine in the northeast.

Deception

   In the months leading up to the invasion, the Allies conducted a
   deception operation, Operation Bodyguard, designed to persuade the
   Germans that other points would be threatened as well as northern
   France (such as the Balkans and the south of France). Then, in the
   weeks leading up to the invasion, in order to persuade the Germans that
   the main invasion would really be coming to the Pas de Calais, as well
   as to lead them to expect an invasion of Norway, the Allies prepared a
   massive deception plan, called Operation Fortitude. Operation Fortitude
   North would lead the Axis to expect an attack on Norway; the much more
   vital Operation Fortitude South was designed to lead the Germans to
   expect the main invasion at the Pas de Calais, and to hold back forces
   to guard against this threat rather than rushing them to Normandy. An
   entirely fictitious First U.S. Army Group (“FUSAG”), supposedly located
   in southeastern England under the command of General Lesley J. McNair
   and General George S. Patton, Jr., was created in German minds by the
   use of double agents and fake radio traffic. The Germans had an
   extensive network of agents operating in England. Unfortunately for
   them, every single one had been “turned” by the Allies as part of the
   Double Cross System, and appropriate agents were dutifully sending back
   messages “confirming” the existence and location of FUSAG and the Pas
   de Calais as the likely main attack point. Dummy landing craft,
   constructed from scaffolding and canvas, were placed in ports on the
   eastern and southeastern coasts of Britain, and the Luftwaffe was
   allowed to photograph them.

   In aid of Operation Fortitude North, Operation Skye was mounted from
   Scotland using radio traffic, designed to convince German traffic
   analysts that an invasion would be also mounted into Norway. Against
   this phantom threat, German troops that otherwise could have been moved
   into France were instead kept in Norway.

Special equipment

   Some of the more unusual Allied preparations included armoured vehicles
   specially adapted for the assault. Developed under the leadership of
   Major-General Percy Hobart (Montgomery’s brother-in-law), these
   vehicles (called Hobart’s Funnies) included “swimming” Duplex Drive
   Sherman tanks, mine-clearing tanks, bridge-laying tanks and road-laying
   tanks and the Armoured Vehicle, Royal Engineers (AVRE) - equipped with
   a large-caliber mortar for destroying concrete emplacements. Some prior
   testing of these vehicles had been undertaken at Kirkham Priory in
   Yorkshire, England. The majority would be operated by small teams of
   the British 79th Armoured Division attached to the various formations.

   The invasion plan also called for the construction of two artificial
   Mulberry Harbours in order to get vital supplies to the invading forces
   in the first few weeks of the battle in the absence of deep-water
   ports, and Operation PLUTO (Pipe Line Under The Ocean), a series of
   submarine pipes that would deliver fuel from Britain to the invading
   forces.

Rehearsals and security

   Allied forces rehearsed their roles for D-Day months before the
   invasion. On April 28, 1944, in south Devon on the English coast, 749
   U.S. soldiers and sailors were killed when German torpedo boats
   surprised one of these landing exercises, Exercise Tiger.

   The effectiveness of the deception operations was increased by a news
   blackout from Britain. Travel to and from the Irish Free State was
   banned, and movements within several miles of the coasts restricted.
   The German embassies and consulates abroad were flooded with all sorts
   of misleading information, in the well-founded hope that any genuine
   information on the landings would be ignored with all the confusing
   chaff.

   In the weeks before the invasion it was noticed that the crossword of
   the British Daily Telegraph newspaper contained a surprisingly large
   number of words which were codewords relating to the invasion. MI-5
   (the Security Service) first thought this was a coincidence, but when
   the word Mulberry was one of the crossword answers, MI-5 then
   interviewed the compiler—a schoolmaster—and were convinced of his
   innocence. Decades later it was revealed that the words were suggested
   by his pupils, and that they had heard nearby soldiers using them,
   without knowing what they meant.

   There were several leaks on or before D-Day, of which one is of major
   interest. It involved General de Gaulle’s radio message after D-Day.
   He, unlike all the other leaders, stated that this invasion was the
   real invasion. This had the potential to ruin the Allied deceptions
   Fortitude North and Fortitude South. For example, Eisenhower referred
   to the landings as the initial invasion. The Germans did not believe de
   Gaulle and waited too long to move in extra units against the Allies.

German preparations

   Through most of 1942 and 1943, the Germans had rightly regarded the
   possibility of a successful Allied invasion in the West as remote.
   Preparations to counter an invasion were limited to the construction by
   the Organisation Todt, of photographically impressive fortifications
   covering the major ports.

   In late 1943, the obvious Allied buildup in Britain prompted the German
   Commander-in-Chief in the West, Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt, to
   request reinforcements. Most of his units were static garrison
   formations only, lacking transport and supporting services, and
   composed of men in low-grade physical categories (e.g. those who had
   lost fingers or toes to frostbite on the Eastern Front), or unwillingly
   conscripted Poles or other non-German nationalities.

   In addition to fresh units, von Rundstedt also received a new
   subordinate, Field Marshal Erwin Rommel. Rommel was originally intended
   only to make a tour of inspection of the Atlantic Wall. After reporting
   to Hitler, Rommel requested command of the defenders of northern
   France, Belgium and the Netherlands. These were organised as Army Group
   B in February 1944. (The German forces in southern France were
   designated as Army Group G, under General Johannes Blaskowitz).

   Rommel had recognised that for all their propaganda value, the Atlantic
   Wall fortifications covered only the ports themselves. The beaches
   between were barely defended, and the Allies could land there and
   capture the ports from inland. He revitalised the defenders, who
   laboured to improve the defences of the entire coastline. Steel
   obstacles were laid at the high-water mark on the beaches, concrete
   bunkers and pillboxes constructed, low-lying areas flooded and
   booby-trapped stakes known as Rommelspargel (Rommel's asparagus) set up
   on likely landing grounds to deter airborne landings.

   These works were not fully completed, especially in the vital Normandy
   sector, partly because Allied bombing of the French railway system
   interfered with the movement of the necessary materials, and also
   because the Germans were convinced by the Allied deception measures and
   their own preconceptions that the landings would take place in the Pas
   de Calais, and concentrated their efforts there.

   Rommel's defensive measures were also frustrated by a dispute over
   armoured doctrine. In addition to his two army groups, von Rundstedt
   also commanded a headquarters known as Panzer Group West under General
   Leo Geyr von Schweppenburg (usually referred to as von Geyr). This
   formation was nominally an administrative HQ for von Rundstedt's
   armoured and mobile formations, but it was to be renamed Fifth Panzer
   Army and brought into the line in Normandy. Von Geyr and Rommel
   disagreed over the deployment and use of the vital Panzer divisions.

   Rommel recognised that the Allies would possess air superiority, and
   would be able to harass his movements from the air. He therefore
   proposed that the armoured formations be deployed close to the invasion
   beaches. In his words, it was better to have one Panzer division facing
   the invaders on the first day, than three Panzer divisions three days
   later when the allies would already have established a firm beachhead.
   Von Geyr argued for the standard doctrine that the Panzer formations
   should be concentrated in a central position around Paris and Rouen,
   and deployed en masse against the main Allied beachhead when this had
   been identified.

   The argument went all the way up to Hitler, who characteristically
   imposed an unworkable compromise solution. Three Panzer divisions were
   given to Rommel, too few to cover all the threatened sectors, and three
   to von Geyr, not enough for a decisive intervention. (Four others were
   dispersed in Southern France and the Netherlands, under the tactical
   control of neither commander). Also, Hitler reserved to himself the
   authority to move most of these divisions, or commit them to action. On
   June 6, many Panzer division commanders were unable to move, as Hitler
   had not given the necessary authorization.

The Allied invasion plan

   D-day assault routes into Normandy.
   Enlarge
   D-day assault routes into Normandy.

   The order of battle was approximately as follows, east to west:

British sector (Second Army)

     * 6th Airborne Division was delivered by parachute and glider to the
       east of the River Orne to protect the left flank.
     * 1st Special Service Brigade comprising No.3, No.4, No.6 and
       No.45(RM) Commandos landed at Ouistreham in Queen Red sector
       (leftmost). No.4 Commando were augmented by 1 and 8 Troop (both
       French) of No.10 (Inter Allied) Commando.
     * I Corps, 3rd Infantry Division and the 27th Armoured Brigade on
       Sword Beach, from Ouistreham to Lion-sur-Mer.
     * No.41(RM) Commando (part of 4th Special Service Brigade) landed on
       the far right of Sword Beach.
     * Canadian 3rd Infantry Division, Canadian 2nd Armoured Brigade and
       No.48 (RM) Commando on Juno Beach, from Saint-Aubin-sur-Mer to La
       Rivière-Saint-Sauveur.
     * No.46(RM) Commando (part of 4th Special Service Brigade) at Juno to
       scale the cliffs on the left side of the Orne River estuary and
       destroy a battery. (Battery fire proved negligible so No.46 were
       kept off-shore as a floating reserve and landed on D+1).
     * XXX Corps, 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division and 8th Armoured
       Brigade on Gold Beach, from La Rivière to Arromanches.
     * No.47(RM) Commando (part of 4th Special Service Brigade) on the
       West flank of Gold beach.
     * 79th Armoured Division operated specialist armour (" Hobart's
       Funnies") for mine-clearing, recovery and assault tasks. These were
       distributed around the Anglo-Canadian beaches.

U.S. Sector (First Army)

     * V Corps, 1st Infantry Division and 29th Infantry Division on Omaha
       Beach, from Sainte-Honorine-des-Pertes to Vierville-sur-Mer.
     * 2nd and 5th Ranger Battalions at Pointe du Hoc (The 5th diverted to
       Omaha).
     * VII Corps, 4th Infantry Division and the 359th RCT of the 90th
       Infantry Division on Utah Beach, around Pouppeville and La
       Madeleine.
     * 101st Airborne Division by parachute around Vierville to support
       Utah Beach landings.
     * 82nd Airborne Division by parachute around Sainte-Mère-Église,
       protecting the right flank. They had originally been tasked with
       dropping further west, in the middle part of the Cotentin, allowing
       the sea-landing forces to their east easier access across the
       peninsula, and preventing the Germans from reinforcing the north
       part of the peninsula. The plans were later changed to move them
       much closer to the beachhead, as at the last minute the 91st Air
       Landing Division was found to be in the area.

Naval participants

   Large landing craft convoy crosses the English Channel on June 6, 1944.
   Enlarge
   Large landing craft convoy crosses the English Channel on June 6, 1944.

   The Invasion Fleet was drawn from 8 different navies, comprising 6,939
   vessels: 1,213 warships, 4,125 transport vessels (landing ships and
   landing craft) and 1,600 support vessels which included a number of
   merchant vessels.

   The overall commander of the Allied Naval Expeditionary Force,
   providing close protection and bombardment at the beaches, was Admiral
   Sir Bertram Ramsay. The Allied Naval Expeditionary Force was divided
   into two Naval Task Forces: Western (Rear-Admiral Alan G Kirk) and
   Eastern (Rear-Admiral Sir Philip Vian).

   The warships provided cover for the transports against the enemy
   whether in the form of surface warships, submarines or as an aerial
   attack and give support to the landings through shore bombardment.
   These ships included the Allied Task Force "O".

          Full details of the naval participants in the landings are given
          at Operation Neptune.

Codenames

   The Allies assigned codenames to the various operations involved in the
   invasion. Overlord was the name assigned to the establishment of a
   large-scale lodgement on the Continent. The first phase, the
   establishment of a secure foothold, was codenamed Neptune. According to
   the D-day museum :

          "The armed forces use codenames to refer to the planning and
          execution of specific military operations. Operation Overlord
          was the codename for the Allied invasion of northwest Europe.
          The assault phase of Operation Overlord was known as Operation
          Neptune. (...) Operation Neptune began on D-Day (6 June 1944)
          and ended on 30 June 1944. By this time, the Allies had
          established a firm foothold in Normandy. Operation Overlord also
          began on D-Day, and continued until Allied forces crossed the
          River Seine on 19 August 1944."

   German coastal artillery in the Pas-de-Calais area, with laborers at
   work on casemate.
   Enlarge
   German coastal artillery in the Pas-de-Calais area, with laborers at
   work on casemate.

German defenses

   The Germans had extensively fortified the foreshore area as part of
   their Atlantic Wall defences, with the thought that the forthcoming
   landings would be timed for high tide (this caused the landings to be
   timed for low tide). It was guarded by four divisions, of which only
   one (352nd) was of high quality (in fact, the only quality was from a
   cadre of the 321st Division—the core of 352nd). The 352nd had many
   troops who had seen action on the eastern front and on the 6th, had
   been carrying out anti-invasion exercises. The other defending troops
   included Germans who, usually for medical reasons, were not considered
   fit for active duty on the Eastern Front, and various other
   nationalities such as Soviet prisoners of war from the southern USSR
   who had agreed to fight for the Germans rather than endure the harsh
   conditions of German POW camps.

   German defenses located in the Allies' planned landing areas consisted
   of four divisional areas or responsibility, with reserves also deployed
   in these areas.

Divisional Areas

     * 716th Infantry Division (Static) defended the Eastern end of the
       landing zones, including most of the British and Canadian beaches.
     * 352nd Infantry Division defended the area between approximately
       Bayeux and Carentan, including Omaha beach. Unlike the other
       divisions this one was well-trained and contained many combat
       veterans.
     * 6th Parachute Regiment (Oberstleutnant Dr. Friedrich August
       Freiherr von der Heydte) defended Carentan.
     * 91st Air Landing Division (Luftlande – air transported)
       (Generalmajor Wilhelm Falley), comprising the 1057th Infantry
       Regiment and 1058th Infantry Regiment. This was a regular infantry
       division, trained, and equipped to be transported by air (i.e.
       transportable artillery, few heavy support weapons) located in the
       interior of the Cotentin Peninsula, including the landing zone of
       the American airdrops.
     * 709th Infantry Division (Static) (Generalleutnant Karl-Wilhelm von
       Schlieben), comprising the 729th Infantry Regiment, 739th Infantry
       Regiment (both with four battalions, but the 729th 4th and the
       739th 1st and 4th being Ost, these two regiments had no regimental
       support companies either), and 919th Infantry Regiment. This
       coastal defense division protected the eastern, and northern
       (including Cherbourg) coast of the Cotentin Peninsula, including
       the Utah beach landing zone.

Adjacent Divisional Areas

   Other divisions occupied the areas around the landing zones, including:
     * 243rd Infantry Division (Static) (Generalleutnant Heinz Hellmich),
       comprising the 920th Infantry Regiment (two battalions), 921st
       Infantry Regiment, and 922nd Infantry Regiment. This coastal
       defense division protected the western coast of the Cotentin
       Peninsula.
     * 711th Infantry Division (Static), comprising the 731th Infantry
       Regiment, and 744th Infantry Regiment. This division defended the
       western part of the Pays de Caux.
     * 30th Mobile Brigade (Oberstleutnant Freiherr von und zu Aufsess),
       comprising three bicycle battalions.

Mobile Reserves

   The 21st Panzer Division (Generalmajor Edgar Feuchtinger) was deployed
   near Caen as a mobile striking force, and the 12th SS Panzer Division
   Hitlerjugend (Brigadeführer Fritz de Witt) was stationed to the
   southeast. Its officers and NCOs were long-serving veterans, but the
   junior soldiers had all been recruited directly from the Hitler Youth
   movement at the age of seventeen in 1943, and it was to acquire a
   reputation for ferocity and war crimes in the coming battle.

The landings

Weather Forecast

   British Pathfinders synchronizing their watches in front of an
   Armstrong Whitworth Albemarle.
   Enlarge
   British Pathfinders synchronizing their watches in front of an
   Armstrong Whitworth Albemarle.

   The final factor in determining the date of the landing was the
   anticipated weather. By this stage of the war, the German U-Boats had
   largely been driven from the Atlantic and their weather stations in
   Greenland had been closed down. The Allies possessed an advantage in
   knowledge of conditions in the Atlantic which was to prove decisive.

   A full moon was required both for light for the aircraft pilots and for
   the spring tide. Most of May had seen fine weather, but this
   deteriorated in early June. Eisenhower had tentatively selected June 5
   as the date for the assault, but on June 4, conditions were clearly
   unsuitable for a landing; wind and high seas made it impossible to
   launch landing craft and low cloud would prevent aircraft finding their
   targets. The Allied troop convoys already at sea were forced to take
   shelter in bays and inlets on the south coast of Britain.

   It seemed possible that everything would have to be cancelled and the
   troops returned to their camps (a vast undertaking, as the enormous
   movement of follow-up formations was already proceeding). The next full
   moon period would be nearly a month away. At a vital meeting on June 5,
   Eisenhower's chief meteorologist (Group Captain J.M. Stagg) forecast a
   brief improvement for June 6. Montgomery and Eisenhower's Chief of
   Staff (General Walter Bedell Smith) were keen to proceed with the
   invasion. Leigh Mallory was doubtful, but Admiral Ramsay allowed that
   conditions would be marginally favourable. On the strength of the
   weather forecast, Eisenhower ordered the invasion to proceed.

   The Germans meanwhile took comfort from the existing poor conditions,
   and believed no invasion would be possible for several days. Some
   troops stood down, and many senior officers were absent. (Rommel, for
   example, took a few days' leave with his wife and family).

The French Resistance

   The various factions and circuits of the French Resistance (also known
   as the Maquis) were included in the plan for Overlord. Groups were
   tasked with attacking railway lines, ambushing roads, or destroying
   telephone exchanges or electricity sub-stations. They were to be
   alerted to carry out these tasks by means of the messages personnels,
   transmitted by the BBC in its French service from London. Several
   hundreds of these were regularly transmitted, masking the few of them
   that were really significant.

   One famous pair of these messages is often mistakenly stated to be a
   general call to arms by the Resistance. A few days before D-Day, the
   (slightly misquoted) first line of Verlaine's poem, "Chanson
   d'Automne", was transmitted. "Les sanglots longs des violons de
   l'automne" (Long sobs of autumn violins) alerted resistants of the
   "Ventriloquist" network in the Orléans region to attack rail targets
   within the next few days. The second line, "Bercent mon coeur d'une
   langueur monotone" (wound my heart with a monotonous langour),
   transmitted late on June 5, meant that the attack was to be mounted
   immediately.

   Other famous words broadcast by the BBC at 21:00 CET on June 5, were
   the messages Les carrotes sont cuites (The carrots are cooked) and Les
   dés sont jetés (The dice have been thrown).

   Josef Götz, the head of the signals section of the German intelligence
   service (the SD) in Paris, had discovered the meaning of the second
   line of Verlaine's poem, and no less than fourteen other executive
   orders they heard late on June 5. His section rightly interpreted them
   to mean that invasion was imminent or underway, and they alerted their
   superiors, and all Army commanders in France. Unfortunately for them,
   they had issued a similar warning a month before, when the Allies had
   begun invasion preparations and alerted the Resistance, but then stood
   down because of a forecast of bad weather. The SD having given this
   false alarm, their genuine alarm was ignored or treated as merely
   routine.

   In addition to the tasks given to the Resistance as part of the
   invasion effort, the Special Operations Executive planned to reinforce
   the Resistance with three-man liaison parties, under Operation
   Jedburgh. The Jedburgh parties would coordinate and arrange supply
   drops to the Maquis groups in the German rear areas. Also operating far
   behind German lines and frequently working closely with the Resistance,
   although not under SOE, were larger parties from the British, French
   and Belgian units of the Special Air Service brigade.

Airborne landings

   The airborne landings were intended to secure the flanks of the assault
   area.

British landings

   The 6th Airborne Division was the first full unit to go into action, at
   sixteen minutes past midnight, in Operation Tonga. One set of
   objectives was Pegasus Bridge and other bridges on the rivers at the
   east flank of the landing area. The bridges were very quickly captured
   by glider forces and held until relieved by the Commandos later on
   D-Day. Another objective was a large gun battery at Merville. Although
   this larger glider and paratroop force was widely scattered, the
   battery was destroyed. However, the diminished assault team suffered
   50% casualties in the attack.

American landings

   The 82nd ( Operation Detroit) and 101st Airborne Divisions ( Operation
   Chicago) were less fortunate in quickly completing their main
   objectives. Partly owing to unmarked landing zones, radio silence, poor
   weather and difficult terrain, many units were widely scattered and
   unable to rally. Efforts of the early wave of pathfinder teams to mark
   the landing zones were largely ineffective. Some paratroopers drowned
   when they landed in the sea or in areas deliberately flooded by the
   Germans.

   After 24 hours, only 2,500 of the 6,000 men in 101st had assembled. The
   dispersal of the American airborne troops, however, had the effect of
   confusing the Germans and fragmenting their response. In addition, the
   Germans' defensive flooding, in the early stages, also helped to
   protect the Americans' southern flank.

   Many continued to roam and fight behind enemy lines for days. The 82nd
   occupied the town of Sainte-Mère-Église early in the morning of June 6,
   giving it the claim of the first town liberated in the invasion.

Sword Beach

   British troops take cover after landing on Sword Beach
   Enlarge
   British troops take cover after landing on Sword Beach

   On Sword Beach, the regular British infantry got ashore with light
   casualties. They had advanced about five miles (8 km) by the end of the
   day but failed to make some of the deliberately ambitious targets set
   by Montgomery. In particular, Caen, a major objective, was still in
   German hands by the end of D-Day.

   1st Special Service Brigade, under the command of Brigadier The Lord
   Lovat DSO and MC, went ashore in the second wave led by No.4 Commando
   with the two French Troops first, as agreed amongst themselves. The 1st
   Special Service Brigade's landing is famous for having been led by
   Piper Bill Millin. The British and French of No.4 Commando had separate
   targets in Ouistreham: the French a blockhouse and the Casino, and the
   British two batteries which overlooked the beach. The blockhouse proved
   too strong for the Commandos' PIAT (Projector Infantry Anti Tank)
   weapons, but the Casino was taken with the aid of a Centaur tank. The
   British Commandos achieved both battery objectives only to find the gun
   mounts empty and the guns removed. Leaving the mopping-up procedure to
   the infantry, the Commandos withdrew from Ouistreham to join the other
   units of their brigade (Nos.3, 6 and 45), moving inland to join-up with
   the 6th Airborne Division.

Juno Beach

   The Canadian forces that landed on Juno Beach faced 11 heavy batteries
   of 155 mm guns and 9 medium batteries of 75 mm guns, as well as
   machine-gun nests, pillboxes, other concrete fortifications, and a
   seawall twice the height of the one at Omaha Beach. The first wave
   suffered 50% casualties, the second highest of the five D-Day
   beachheads. The use of armour was successful at Juno, in some instances
   actually landing ahead of the infantry as intended and helping clear a
   path inland.
   Personnel of Royal Canadian Navy Beach Commando "W" landing on Mike
   Beach, Juno sector of the Normandy beachhead. June 6th, 1944.
   Enlarge
   Personnel of Royal Canadian Navy Beach Commando "W" landing on Mike
   Beach, Juno sector of the Normandy beachhead. June 6th, 1944.

   Despite the obstacles, within hours the Canadians were off the beach
   and beginning their advance inland. The 6th Canadian Armoured Regiment
   (1st Hussars) and The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada achieved their June
   6 objectives, when they crossed the Caen– Bayeux highway over nine
   miles (15 km) inland.

   By the end of D-Day, 15,000 Canadians had been successfully landed, and
   the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division had penetrated further into France
   than any other Allied force, despite having faced strong resistance at
   the water's edge and later counter-attacks on the beachhead by elements
   of the German 21st and 12th SS Hitlerjugend Panzer divisions on June 7
   and 8.

Gold Beach

   At Gold Beach, the casualties were also quite heavy, partly because the
   swimming Sherman DD tanks were delayed, and the Germans had strongly
   fortified a village on the beach. However, the 50th (Northumbrian)
   Infantry Division overcame these difficulties and advanced almost to
   the outskirts of Bayeux by the end of the day. With the exception of
   the Canadians at Juno Beach, no division came closer to its objectives
   than the 50th.

   No.47 (RM) Commando was the last British Commando unit to land and came
   ashore on Gold east of Le Hamel. Their task was to proceed inland then
   turn right (west) and make a ten-mile (16 km) march through enemy
   territory to attack the coastal harbour of Port en Bessin from the
   rear. This small port, on the British extreme right, was well sheltered
   in the chalk cliffs and significant in that it was to be a prime early
   harbour for supplies to be brought in including fuel by underwater pipe
   from tankers moored offshore.

Omaha Beach

   Troops in an LCVP landing craft approach Omaha Beach June 6, 1944.
   Enlarge
   Troops in an LCVP landing craft approach Omaha Beach June 6, 1944.

   Senior military officials aboard the USS Augusta during the Normandy
   Invasion, June 1944. General Omar N. Bradley is the second man from the
   left.
   Enlarge
   Senior military officials aboard the USS Augusta during the Normandy
   Invasion, June 1944. General Omar N. Bradley is the second man from the
   left.
   Survivors of a sunken troop transport wade ashore on Omaha Beach
   Enlarge
   Survivors of a sunken troop transport wade ashore on Omaha Beach

   Omaha Beach was the bloodiest landing beach on D-Day. Elements of the
   1st Infantry Division and 29th Infantry Division faced the German 352nd
   Infantry Division, one of the best trained on the beaches. Allied
   intelligence failed to realize that the relatively low-quality 714th
   Infantry Division (static) had been replaced by the 352nd a few days
   before the invasion. Omaha was also the most heavily fortified beach,
   and the pre-landing aerial and naval bombardment of the bunkers proved
   to be ineffective. On the Eastern sector, 27 of the 32 DD tanks
   deployed never reached the beach. On the Western sector the DDs were
   landed directly on the beach, but suffered heavy losses due to German
   artillery defending the beach. The official record stated that "within
   10 minutes of the ramps being lowered, [the leading] company had become
   inert, leaderless and almost incapable of action. Every officer and
   sergeant had been killed or wounded [...] It had become a struggle for
   survival and rescue". There were about 2,400 casualties on Omaha on
   D-day, most in the first few hours. Commanders considered abandoning
   the beachhead, but small units, often forming ad hoc groups, eventually
   took the beach and pressed inland.

Pointe du Hoc

   The massive, concrete cliff-top gun emplacement at Pointe du Hoc was
   the target of the 2nd Ranger battalion, commanded by James Earl Rudder.
   The task was to scale the 100 foot (30 metre) cliffs under enemy fire
   with ropes and ladders, and then attack and destroy the guns, which
   were thought to command the Omaha and Utah landing areas. On capturing
   the emplacements the guns were found to have been moved. The Rangers
   did, however push further inland to find and destroy the guns.

Utah Beach

   Casualties on Utah Beach, the westernmost landing zone, were 197 out of
   around 23,000 landed, the lightest of any beach. The 4th Infantry
   Division troops landing at Utah Beach found themselves in the wrong
   positions due to a current that pushed their landing craft to the
   southeast. Instead of landing at Tare Green and Uncle Red sectors, they
   came ashore at Victor sector, which was lightly defended. Relatively
   little German opposition was encountered. The 4th Infantry Division was
   able to press inland relatively easily over beach exits that had been
   seized from the inland side by the 502nd and 506th Parachute Infantry
   Regiments of the 101st Airborne Division. This was partially by
   accident, as their planned landing was further down the beach. By early
   afternoon the 4th Infantry Division had succeeded in linking up with
   elements of the 101st. American casualties were light, and the troops
   were able to press inward much faster than expected, making it an
   almost complete success.

After the landings

   Landing supplies at Normandy.
   Enlarge
   Landing supplies at Normandy.
   How the beachheads were supplied on D-Day. Photo taken 6 June 1944 by
   Steck SC190631 public domain.
   Enlarge
   How the beachheads were supplied on D-Day. Photo taken 6 June 1944 by
   Steck SC190631 public domain.
   The build-up of Omaha Beach: reinforcements of men and equipment moving
   inland.
   Enlarge
   The build-up of Omaha Beach: reinforcements of men and equipment moving
   inland.

   Once the beachhead was established, two artificial Mulberry Harbours
   were towed across the English Channel in segments and made operational
   around D+3 ( 9 June). One was constructed at Arromanches by British
   forces, the other at Omaha Beach by American forces. By the 19 June,
   when severe storms interrupted the landing of supplies for several days
   and destroyed the Omaha harbour, the British had landed 314,547 men,
   54,000 vehicles, and 102,000 tons of supplies, while the Americans put
   ashore 314,504 men, 41,000 vehicles, and 116,000 tons of supplies..
   Around 9,000 tons of materiel was landed daily at the Arromanches
   harbour until the end of August 1944, by which time the port of
   Cherbourg had been secured by the Allies, and had begun to return to
   service. The German defenders positioned on the beaches put up
   relatively light resistance, being ill-trained and short on transport
   and equipment, and having been subject to a week of intense
   bombardment. An exception was the 352nd Infantry division, moved
   earlier by Rommel from St. Lo, which defended Omaha beach. The tenacity
   of the 352nd's defence, and perhaps also the indication by Allied
   intelligence that there would be only two 2 battalions of the 716th
   Division there, was responsible for Omaha's high casualty rate. Other
   German commanders took several hours to be sure that the reports they
   were receiving indicated a landing in force, rather than a series of
   raids. Their communication difficulties were made worse by the absence
   of several key commanders. The scattering of the American parachutists
   also added to the confusion, as reports were coming in of Allied troops
   all over northern Normandy.

   Despite this the German 21st Panzer division mounted a concerted
   counterattack, between Sword and Juno beaches, and succeeded in
   reaching the sea. Stiff resistance by anti-tank gunners and fear of
   being cut off caused them to withdraw before the end of 6 June.
   According to some reports the sighting of a wave of airborne troops
   flying over them was instrumental in the decision to retreat.

   The Allied invasion plans had called for the capture of Carentan, St.
   Lô, Caen and Bayeux on the first day, with all the beaches linked
   except Utah, and Sword (the last linked with paratroopers) and a front
   line six to ten miles (10 to 16 km) from the beaches. In practice none
   of these had been achieved. However, overall the casualties had not
   been as heavy as some had feared (around 10,000 compared to the 20,000
   Churchill feared), and the bridgeheads had withstood the expected
   counterattacks.

   The German 12th SS (Hitler Youth) Panzer division assaulted the
   Canadians on June 7 and June 8, and inflicted heavy losses, but was
   unable to break through. Meanwhile, the beaches were being linked:
   Sword on June 7, Omaha June 10, Utah by June 13. The Allies were
   actually reinforcing the front faster than the Germans. Although the
   Allies had to land everything on the beaches, Allied air superiority
   and the destruction of the French rail system made every German troop
   movement slow and dangerous.

   The resulting disposition of Allied forces within the bridgehead was
   then the U.S. First Army in the west and the British Second Army in the
   east.

Cherbourg

   In the western part of the lodgement, U.S. troops were to occupy the
   Cotentin Peninsula, especially Cherbourg, which would provide the
   allies with a deep water harbour. The country behind Utah and Omaha
   beaches was characterised by bocage; ancient banks and hedgerows, up to
   three metres thick, spread one to two hundred metres apart, and so both
   being impervious to tanks, gunfire, and vision, and making ideal
   defensive positions. The U.S. infantry made slow progress, and suffered
   heavy casualties, as they pressed towards Cherbourg. The airborne
   troops were called on again and again to restart a stalled advance. The
   far side of the peninsula was reached on the 18th June. Hitler
   prevented German forces from retreating to the strong Atlantic Wall
   fortifications in Cherbourg, and after initially offering stiff
   resistance the Cherbourg commander, Lieutenant General von Schlieben,
   capitulated on June 26 after destroying most of the facilities, making
   the harbour inoperable until the middle of August.

Caen

   Map showing operations close to Caen.
   Enlarge
   Map showing operations close to Caen.

   Believing Caen to be the "crucible" of the battle, Montgomery made it
   the target of a series of attritional attacks. The first was Operation
   Perch, which attempted to turn the Germans' flank at Villers-Bocage,
   which was halted at the Battle of Villers-Bocage. After a delay owing
   to the difficulty of supply because of storms from the 17 until the 23
   June, a German counterattack (which was known through Ultra
   intelligence) was pre-empted with Operation Epsom. Caen was severely
   bombed and then occupied north of the River Orne in Operation Charnwood
   from 7 July until the 9 July. A major offensive in the Caen area
   followed under General Dempsey with all three British armoured
   divisions, codenamed Operation Goodwood from the 18 July until the 21
   July that captured the remainder of Caen and the high ground to the
   south at a high cost. A further operation, Operation Spring, from the
   25 July until 28 July by the Canadians secured limited gains at a high
   cost.

The breakout from the beachhead

   An important element of Montgomery's strategy was to cause the Germans
   to commit their reserves to the eastern part of the theatre to allow an
   easier breakout from the west. By the end of Goodwood the Germans had
   committed the last of their reserve divisions there so now there were
   six and a half Panzer divisions facing the British and Canadian forces
   compared to one and a half facing the United States armies. Operation
   Cobra, was launched on July 24 by the U.S. First Army, and was
   extremely successful with the advance guard of VIII Corps entering
   Coutances at the western end of the Cotentin Peninsula, on July 28,
   after a penetration through the German lines.
   Map showing the breakout from the Normandy bridgehead.
   Enlarge
   Map showing the breakout from the Normandy bridgehead.

   On August 1, VIII Corps became part of Lieutenant General George S.
   Patton's newly arrived U.S. Third Army. On August 4, Montgomery altered
   the invasion plan by detaching only a corps to occupy Brittany and hem
   the German troops there into enclaves around the ports while the rest
   of the Third Army continued south. The U.S. First Army turned the
   German front at its western end. Because of the concentration of German
   forces south of Caen, Montgomery moved the British armour west and
   launched Operation Bluecoat from 30 July until 7 August to add to the
   pressure from the United States armies. This drew the German forces to
   the west, allowing the launch of Operation Totalize south from Caen on
   the 7 August.

The Falaise Pocket

   At the beginning of August more German reserves became available with
   the realisation that no landings were going to take place near Calais.
   The German forces were being encircled, and the German High Command
   wanted these reserves to help an orderly retreat to the Seine. However,
   they were overruled by Hitler who demanded an attack at Mortain at the
   western end of the pocket on the August 7. The attack was repelled by
   the Allies, who again had advance warning from Ultra. The original
   Allied plan was for a wide encirclement as far as the Loire valley, but
   Bradley realised that many of the German forces in Normandy were not
   capable of manoeuvre by this stage, and obtained Montgomery's agreement
   by telephone on August 8 for a "short hook" further north to encircle
   German forces. This was left to Patton to effect, moving nearly
   unopposed through Normandy via Le Mans, and then back north again
   towards Alençon. The Germans were then left in a pocket with its jaws
   near Chambois. Fierce German defence and the diversion of some American
   troops for a thrust by Patton towards the Seine at Mantes prevented the
   jaws closing until August 21, trapping 50,000 German troops. Whether
   this could have been achieved earlier and more prisoners taken has been
   a matter of some controversy. Patton's thrust prevented the Germans
   from establishing the Seine as a defensive line, and the Canadian First
   and British Second Armies both advanced there, bringing the war in
   Normandy in their sector to a close, and meeting the projected schedule
   set by Montgomery with time to spare.

   The liberation of Paris followed shortly afterwards. The French
   Resistance in Paris rose against the Germans on 19 August; and the
   French 2nd Armoured Division under General Jacques Leclerc, along with
   the U.S. 4th Infantry Division pressing forward from Normandy, received
   the surrender of the German forces there and liberated Paris on August
   25.

Chronology

     * May 1944 was originally planned date as the time for the invasion.
       Difficulties assembling landing craft postponed invasion until
       June.
     * June 5/ June 6: British 6th Airborne Division ( Operation Tonga),
       U.S. 82nd Airborne Division ( Operation Detroit) and 101st Airborne
       Division ( Operation Chicago) were airlanded.
     * June 6: Seaborne D-Day landings ( Operation Neptune)
     * June 7-17: 3rd Parachute Brigade of the British 6th Airborne
       Division repulse several German Attacks at Le Mesnil Crossroads.
     * June 12: U.S. 101st Airborne Division captures Carentan
     * June 13: U.S. 101st Airborne Division repel a German Counter Attack
       west of the city at a place called Hill 30, Elements of the U.S.
       2nd Armored Division are ordered to help relieve the paratroopers.
       British armor engaged in the Battle of Villers-Bocage.
     * June 25– June 29: Operation Epsom, an offensive to the west of
       Caen, was repulsed by the German defenders.
     * July 7: Caen was liberated.
     * July 17: Erwin Rommel was severely injured when his car was strafed
       by a Royal Canadian Air Force Spitfire.
     * July 18– July 20: Operation Goodwood initiated.
     * July 24: Operation Cobra begins a breakout near Saint-Lô.
     * August 3– August 9: Operation Totalize, a trap to capture
       retreating German armour in the Falaise pocket starts.
     * August 25: Paris is liberated.

Political considerations

   The Normandy landings were long foreshadowed by a considerable amount
   of political maneuvering amongst the Allies. There was much
   disagreement about timing, appointments of command, and where exactly
   the landings were to take place. The opening of a second front had been
   long postponed and a particular source of strain between the Allies.
   Stalin had been pressing the Western Allies to launch a "second front"
   since 1942, but Churchill had argued for delay until victory could be
   assured, preferring to attack Italy and North Africa first. The
   appointment of Bernard Montgomery was questioned by some Americans, who
   would have preferred the urbane Harold Alexander to have commanded the
   land forces. Montgomery, in turn, had doubts about the appointment of
   Dwight D. Eisenhower. In the end, however, Montgomery and Eisenhower
   cooperated to excellent effect in Normandy: their well-known
   disagreements came much later.

   Normandy presented serious logistical problems, not the least of which
   being that the only viable port in the area, Cherbourg, was heavily
   defended and many among the higher echelons of command argued that the
   Pas de Calais would make a more suitable landing area on these grounds
   alone.

Campaign Close

   Normandy Campaign Streamer
   Enlarge
   Normandy Campaign Streamer

   The campaign in Normandy is considered by historians to end either at
   midnight on 24/25 July 1944 (the start of Operation Cobra on the
   American front) or 25 August 1944 (the advance to the Seine). The
   original Overlord plan anticipated a ninety day campaign in Normandy
   with the ultimate goal of reaching the Seine; this goal was met with
   time to spare. The Americans were able to end the campaign on their
   front early with the massive breakout of Operation Cobra.

   The US official history describes the fighting beginning on 25 July as
   the "Northern France" campaign, and includes the fighting to close the
   Falaise Gap, which the British/Canadians/Poles consider to be part of
   the Battle of Normandy.

   SHAEF, back in England, and the governments were very nervous of
   stagnation, and there were reports of Eisenhower requesting
   Montgomery's replacement in July. Lack of forward progress is often
   attributed to the nature of the terrain in which much of the
   post-landing fighting in the US and parts of the British sectors took
   place, the bocage, as well as the usual difficulties of opposed
   landings. These were small farm fields separated by high earth banks
   covered in dense shrubbery, which were well suited for the defence.
   However, as at El Alamein, Montgomery kept to his original attritional
   strategy, reaching the objectives within his original ninety day
   target.

   Victory in Normandy was followed by a pursuit to the French border in
   short order, and Germany was forced once again to reinforce the Western
   Front with manpower and resources from the Soviet and Italian fronts.

Assessment of the battle

   The German military cemetery in La Cambe
   Enlarge
   The German military cemetery in La Cambe

   The Normandy landings were the first successful opposed landings across
   the English Channel for nine centuries. They were costly in terms of
   men, but the defeat inflicted on the Germans was one of the largest of
   the war. Strategically, the campaign led to the loss of the German
   position in most of France and the secure establishment of a major new
   front. By September, Allied forces of seven field armies (two of which
   came through southern France in Operation Dragoon) were approaching the
   German frontier.

   The Allies were victorious in Normandy due to several factors. The
   Allies ensured material superiority at the critical point
   (concentration of force) and logistical innovations like the PLUTO
   pipelines and Mulberry harbors enhanced the flow of troops, equipment,
   and essentials such as fuel and ammunition. Movement of cargo over the
   open beaches exceeded Allied planners' expectations, even after the
   destruction of the US Mulberry in the channel storm in mid-June. By the
   end of July 1944, 1 million American, British, Canadian, French, and
   Polish troops, hundreds of thousands of vehicles, and adequate supplies
   in most categories were ashore in Normandy. Although there was a
   shortage of artillery ammunition, at no time were the Allies critically
   short of any necessity. This was a remarkable achievement considering
   they did not hold a port until Cherbourg fell. By the time of the
   breakout the Allies also enjoyed a considerable superiority in numbers
   of troops (approximately 3.5-1) and armored vehicles (approximately
   4-1) which helped overcome the natural advantages the terrain gave to
   the German defenders.

   Allied Intelligence and counterintelligence efforts were successful
   beyond expectations. The Operation Fortitude deception plan before the
   invasion kept German attention focused on the Pas-de-Calais, and indeed
   high-quality German forces were kept in this area, away from Normandy,
   until July. Prior to the invasion, few German reconnaissance flights
   took place over Britain, and those that did saw only the dummy staging
   areas. Ultra decrypts of German communications had been helpful as
   well, exposing German dispositions and revealing their plans such as
   the Mortain counterattack.

   Allied air operations also contributed significantly to the invasion,
   via close tactical support, interdiction of German lines of
   communication (preventing movement of supplies and reinforcements-
   particularly the critical Panzer units), and rendering the Luftwaffe as
   practically useless in Normandy. German naval units were largely
   ineffective. "Carpet-bombing" raids by fleets of Allied heavy bombers
   on sections of the German lines helped ensure breakthroughs at critical
   points.

   Despite initial heavy losses in the assault phase, Allied morale
   remained high. Casualty rates among all the armies were tremendous, and
   the Commonwealth forces had to create a new category - Double Intense -
   to be able to describe them. Manpower problems would plague the Allies
   for the remainder of the war. Britain disbanded an entire division (the
   59th) in Normandy, and Canada would bring about conscription for
   overseas service in November 1944 due to the losses in Normandy and
   later operations in the Low Countries (like the Battle of the Scheldt).

German leadership

   Faulty German dispositions and decisions also contributed to Allied
   victory. German commanders at all levels failed to react to the assault
   phase in a timely manner. Communications problems exacerbated the
   difficulties caused by Allied air and naval firepower; local commanders
   also seemed unequal to the task of fighting an aggressive defence on
   the beach, as Rommel envisioned. For example, the commander of the
   German 352nd Infantry Division failed to capitalize on American
   difficulty at Omaha, committing his reserves elsewhere when they might
   have been more profitably used against the American beachhead.

   The German High Command remained fixed on the Calais area, and von
   Rundstedt was not permitted to commit the armored reserve. When it was
   finally released late in the day, success was immeasurably more
   difficult, and even the 21st Panzer Division, which was able to
   counterattack a bit earlier, was stymied by strong opposition that had
   been allowed to build at the beaches. The Germans generally fought with
   their customary energy and skill, despite uneven performance by some
   units. The Panzer units faced withering air interdiction that reduced
   their effectiveness, yet they offered glimpses of what might have been
   possible in way of counterattack, had additional mobile forces like the
   12th SS Panzer Division and the Panzer Lehr Division been committed
   earlier into the battle. Despite considerable Allied material
   superiority, the Germans kept the Allies bottled up in a small
   bridgehead for nearly two months.

   Although there were several well-known disputes among the Allied
   commanders, their tactics and strategy were essentially determined by
   agreement between the main commanders. By contrast, the German leaders
   were constantly bullied and their decisions interfered with by Hitler,
   controlling the battle from a distance with little knowledge of local
   conditions. Field Marshals von Rundstedt and Rommel repeatedly asked
   Hitler for more discretion, but were refused. Von Rundstedt was sacked
   on June 29 after he bluntly told the Chief of Staff at Hitler's Armed
   Forces HQ (Field Marshal Keitel) to "Make peace, you idiots!" Rommel
   was severely injured by Allied aircraft on July 16. Field Marshal von
   Kluge, who took over the posts held by both von Rundstedt and Rommel,
   was compromised by his association with some of the military plotters
   against Hitler, and refused to disobey or argue with Hitler for fear of
   arrest. As a result, the German armies in Normandy were placed in
   deadly peril by Hitler's insistence on counter-attack rather than
   retreat after the American breakthrough. Kluge was relieved on August
   15, and took his own life shortly afterwards. The more independent
   Field Marshal Model took over when the Germans in Normandy were already
   in the midst of defeat.

Allied leadership

   Much has been written about the Allied delay at taking Caen as the
   battle developed. Pre-invasion schedules were rarely fulfilled as
   planned. The Land Forces Commander, British General Bernard Montgomery,
   maintained mastery of the developing battle. His concept that Caen
   would be a "pivot", upon which the front would turn, was accurate, and
   as the battle of Normandy developed, the British and Canadian armies
   faced the bulk of German armor in the theatre. While US forces faced
   fewer German armored divisions, their own armor was severely limited by
   both the close-in terrain of the bocage and the large number and
   variety of German anti-tank weapons deployed all along the front. The
   open terrain on the British front on the eastern flank left the Germans
   little choice but to concentrate their armor there. Eventually this
   played into Allied hands when the breakout took place, not in the east
   as the Germans feared, but in the west in Operation Cobra.

Normandy and the Eastern front

   The lodgement established at Normandy was vital for the Allies to bring
   pressure on German armies in western Europe. By this time the Soviet
   forces had the capacity to crush Germany in Europe on their own, and
   therefore a western invasion was not strictly required to defeat the
   German Reich. The military forces at the disposal of Nazi Germany,
   moreover, steadily declined from 1943 onwards. On D-Day, the Red Army
   was steadily advancing towards Germany and engaging four-fifths of all
   German land forces. In France, and Italy, the western Allies faced the
   remaining 20% of the German army.

   The third front in France diverted German resources and attention from
   the Eastern Front and thereby aided the Soviets substantially. The
   Germans had long expected an Allied invasion of France and had been
   required to garrison the country as well as divert manpower and
   materials to coastal fortifications along many hundreds of miles of
   shore. Hitler's thinking is documented in his Führer Directive 51, of
   November 1943, which stressed that the Western approaches to the Reich
   were to be strengthened even at the expense of those in the East. In
   addition, Hitler was anxious to hold on to the Belgian and northern
   French coasts as bases for the "V" weapons to be launched against
   England.

   Hitler maintained his "West first" focus after the landings in Normandy
   and all efforts were made to contain Allied forces within the lodgement
   area; in fact as the fighting in Normandy increased in tempo, Hitler
   accepted the annihilation of an entire German Army Group on the Russian
   front. Hitler would continue to redeploy desperately needed units from
   the East against the Western Allies, with this practice peaking in
   December 1944 in the Ardennes Offensive.

   Given the Soviets' later domination of Eastern Europe, if the Normandy
   invasion had not occurred there might conceivably have been a complete
   occupation of northern and western Europe by communist forces.
   Alternately, Hitler might have deployed more forces to the Eastern
   Front, conceivably delaying or even preventing a Soviet advance beyond
   their prewar border. In practice though, German troops remained in the
   West even in the absence of an invasion.

   After the war Hitler's foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop
   presented three main reasons for German's defeat:

          Unexpectedly stubborn resistance from the Soviet Union
          The large-scale supply of arms and equipment from the US to the
          Soviet Union, under the lend-lease agreement
          The success of the Western Allies in the struggle for air
          supremacy.

   Many historians, such as Richard Overy, have also concluded that
   Normandy was not very important for the outcome of the war. Since the
   Germans suffered 93% of their casualties on the Eastern front, the
   battle of Normandy only shortened the war.

War memorials and tourism

   The visitor will find many reminders of June 6, 1944. Most noticeable
   are the beaches, which are still referred to on maps and signposts by
   their invasion codenames. Then come the vast cemeteries. The American
   cemetery, in Colleville-sur-Mer, contains row upon row of identical
   white crosses and Stars of David, immaculately kept, commemorating the
   American dead. Commonwealth graves, in many locations, use white
   headstones engraved with the person's religious symbol and their unit
   insignia. The largest cemetery in Normandy is the German one at La
   Cambe, which features granite stones almost flush with the ground and
   groups of low-set crosses. There is also a Polish cemetery.

   Streets near the beaches are still named after the units that fought
   there, and occasional markers commemorate notable incidents. At
   significant points, such as Pointe du Hoc and Pegasus Bridge, there are
   plaques, memorials or small museums. The Mulberry harbour still sits in
   the sea at Arromanches. In Sainte-Mère-Église, a dummy paratrooper
   hangs from the church spire. On Juno Beach, the Canadian government has
   built the Juno Beach Information Centre, commemorating one of the most
   significant events in Canadian military history. In Caen is a large
   Museum for Peace, which is dedicated to peace generally, rather than to
   the battle itself. The people of Normandy will continue to remember
   Operation Overlord long into the future.

   Every year on June 6, American cartoonist and World War II veteran
   Charles M. Schulz (1922–2000) reserved his Peanuts comic strip to
   memorialise his comrades who fell at Normandy.

   In 1994, for the 50th anniversary, the French issued a commemorative
   medal which depicted General Charles de Gaulle leading a heroic charge
   of French troops on an un-named beach. The medal was hastily withdrawn
   after it was pointed out that de Gaulle did not set foot upon French
   soil until the 14th June.

Documentaries

     * Morning: Normandy Invasion (June–August 1944), episode 17 of the
       famous 1974 ITV series The World at War features an extensive
       coverage of the Allied preparations and the actual events.
     * D-Day: The Lost Evidence, 100 minute 2004 "History Channel"
       documentary that relies on Allied reconnaissance photos, computer
       graphics, reenactments, and the firsthand eye witness accounts of
       combatants, (Allies and Germans), who were there.
     * Battlefield-The Battle for Normandy, 100 minute 2001 documentary
       that compares Allied and German commanders, personnel, equipment,
       and tactics before, during, and after the June-August battle.

Dramatizations

   Films

     * The Longest Day, a 1962 American film based on the book, starring
       Richard Burton, Sean Connery, John Wayne and a host of stars in
       small roles.
     * Testa di sbarco per otto implacabili (Hell in Normandy), a 1967
       Italian and French film directed by Alfonso Brescia.
     * The Big Red One, a 1980 American film by Samuel Fuller, based on
       his own experiences in The First Infantry Division, or The Big Red
       One.
     * Saving Private Ryan, a 1998 American film directed by Steven
       Spielberg and starring Tom Hanks and Matt Damon.
     * Zvezda (The Star), a 2002 Russian film directed by Nikolai Lebedev.
     * Overlord, a 1975 British movie directed by Stuart Cooper. The film
       uses documentary footage of the landing, rather than a recreation.
     * The Blockhouse, a 1973 movie starring Peter Sellers about French
       construction labourers trapped inside a German fortification on
       D-Day and for a further six years.
     * D-Day, the Sixth of June, a 1956 love triangle involving Robert
       Taylor, Dana Wynter, and Richard Todd that allocates 10 minutes,
       (more or less), of the 106 minute movie to reenacting the invasion.
       Richard Todd, (D-Day combat veteran), would later co-star in The
       Longest Day.
     * The Americanization of Emily, a 1964 anti-war satire/romance with
       Julie Andrews, James Garner, and James Coburn.

   Music Videos

     * " The Longest Day", by Iron Maiden
     * " The Ghost of You", by My Chemical Romance

   Music

     * The British heavy metal band Iron Maiden, on the album entitled "A
       Matter of Life and Death", wrote the song "The Longest Day" about
       the Battle of Normandy.
     * The title track on Swedish power metal band Sabaton's third album,
       "Primo Victoria", is about the Normandy invasion. "Primo Victoria"
       means "Beginning of Victory".

   TV

     * Band of Brothers, a 2001 American miniseries produced by Steven
       Spielberg and Tom Hanks that was based on the book of the same name
       by Steven E. Ambrose.
     * Ike: Countdown to D-Day, a 2004 American movie aired on The History
       Channel starring Tom Selleck.

   Video games

     * Battlefield 1942, a 2002 Swedish video game.
     * Call of Duty, a 2003 American computer and video game.
     * Brothers In Arms: Road to Hill 30, a 2005 American computer and
       video game.
     * Brothers In Arms: Earned in Blood, a 2005 American computer and
       video game.
     * Call of Duty 2, a 2005 American computer and video game.
     * Call of Duty 2: Big Red One, a 2005 American video game for the
       Nintendo GameCube.
     * Call of Duty 3, a 2006 American video game. The game is based on
       the Normandy Breakout.
     * Commandos 3: Destination Berlin,a 2003 American computer and video
       game. The Omaha Beach invasion is dramatised in the Normandy
       campaign.
     * Company of Heroes, a 2006 real-time strategy game.
     * Medal of Honour, a 1999 American computer and video game series.
     * Medal of Honour: Frontline, a 2002 American computer and video
       game.
     * Unreal Tournament, a 1999 American computer and video game. An
       assault campaign loosely depicted the invasion.
     * Soldiers: Heroes of WWII, a 2004 European computer and video game.
       The German campaign of the game, titled "Hunter", takes place after
       the invasion of D-Day and has the player in control of the
       legendary German tank commander, Michael Wittmann.
     * Return To Castle Wolfenstein, An Axis vs Allied Multiplayer game.
     * 1944 D-Day Operation Overlord , a complete simulation of the entire
       Battle of Normandy. Players have the option to be a pilot, a
       sailor, a tank commander, or any other person who was fighting for
       either army.

   Wargames

     * The Longest Day, a 1980 American board wargame by Avalon Hill
       depicting the battle from the landings through to the breakout.
     * D-Day: The Great Crusade, 2004 wargame covering the first 30 days
       of the Normandy Campaign.
     * Memoir '44, a 2004 American wargame.
     * Axis and Allies: D-Day, the fifth installment in the popular Axis &
       Allies series. It specifically deals with the D-Day landings.
     * Oklahoma D-Day, a woodsball-style paintball game played in
       Wyandotte, Oklahoma that recreates the events of Normandy. Known as
       the World's Largest Paintball game.

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