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Buddhism

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Religious movements,
traditions and organizations

   Buddhism (also known as Buddha Dharma, Pali: बुद्ध धम्म, "the teachings
   of the awakened one") is a dharmic, non-theistic religion, a way of
   life, a practical philosophy, and a life-enhancing system of applied
   psychology. Buddhism focuses on the teachings of Gautama Buddha (Pali:
   गौतम बुद्ध), hereinafter referred to as "the Buddha", who was born in
   Kapilavastu in what is now Nepal around the fifth century BCE. Buddhism
   spread throughout the Indian subcontinent in the five centuries
   following the Buddha's passing, and thence into Central, Southeast, and
   East Asia over the next two millennia.

   Today, Buddhism is divided primarily into three traditions:
     * Theravada (Sanskrit: स्थविरवाद Sthaviravāda);
     * Mahayana (Sanskrit: महायान Mahāyāna);
     * Vajrayana, which developed from, and is sometimes still classified
       with, Mahayana.

   Theravada is still practiced in certain parts of South Asia (mostly Sri
   Lanka) and Southeast Asia; Mahayana is practiced predominantly in East
   Asia; and the esoteric Vajrayana is followed in Tibet and Mongolia. The
   earlier non-Theravada Hinayana schools of thought that stemmed from
   India largely died out a millennium ago.

   Buddhism continues to attract followers worldwide and is considered a
   major world religion. According to one source ( ), "World estimates for
   Buddhists vary between 230 and 500 million, with most around 350
   million." However, estimates are uncertain for several countries.
   Buddhism is the fifth-largest religion in the world behind
   Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and traditional Chinese religion,
   respectively. The monks' order Sangha, which began during the lifetime
   of the Buddha in India, is amongst the oldest organizations on earth.

   When used in a generic sense, a buddha is generally considered to be a
   person who discovers the true nature of reality through years of
   spiritual cultivation, investigation of the various religious practices
   of his time, and meditation. This transformational discovery is called
   bodhi (literally, "awakening" — more commonly called "enlightenment").

   Any person who has awakened from the "sleep of ignorance" by directly
   realizing the true nature of reality is called a buddha. The Buddha is
   said to have been only the latest of many of these; there were other
   buddhas before him and there will be others in the future. According to
   the Buddha, any person can follow his example and become enlightened
   through the study of his words (" Dharma") and putting them into
   practice, by leading a virtuous, moral life, and purifying the mind.

   The aim of Buddhist practice is to put an end to the sorrow (dukkha,
   Sanskrit/Pali: दुक्ख) of existence. In the words of the Buddha: "I
   teach one thing and one thing only: suffering and the end of
   suffering". To achieve this state of the end of suffering ( Nirvana or
   Nirodha), adherents train and purify the mind by following the Four
   Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path, eventually arriving at an
   understanding of the true nature of all things. In this way all
   ignorance and unhappiness ends, and liberation is attained.

   Buddhist teaching encourages individuals to practice and verify the
   Buddha's teachings based on their own personal experience, and also
   after consulting with 'the wise'. If they find the teachings are valid
   (leading to more happiness and less suffering), they can apply these
   teachings in a practical form into their daily life if they so wish.

Doctrines

   Gautama Buddha, Gandhara, northern Pakistan.
   Enlarge
   Gautama Buddha, Gandhara, northern Pakistan.

   Numerous distinct groups have developed since the passing of the
   Buddha, with diverse teachings that vary widely in practice,
   philosophical emphasis, and culture. However, there are certain
   doctrines which are common to the majority of schools and traditions in
   Buddhism.

The Four Noble Truths

   The Buddha taught that in life there exists sorrow / suffering which is
   caused by desire and it can be cured (ceased) by following the Noble
   Eightfold Path (Sanskrit: Ārya 'aṣṭāṅga Mārgaḥ , Pāli: Ariyo Aṭṭhaṅgiko
   Maggo). This teaching is called the Catvāry Āryasatyāni (Pali: Cattāri
   Ariyasaccāni), the " Four Noble Truths".
    1. Suffering: Birth is suffering, aging is suffering, illness is
       suffering, death is suffering; union with what is displeasing is
       suffering; separation from what is pleasing is suffering; not to
       get what one wants is suffering; in brief, the five aggregates
       subject to clinging are suffering.
    2. The cause of suffering: The desire which leads to renewed existence
       (rebirth).
    3. The cessation of suffering: The cessation of desire.
    4. The way leading to the cessation of suffering: The Noble Eightfold
       Path;

   The Four Noble Truths was the topic of the first sermon given by the
   Buddha after his enlightenment, which was given to the ascetics with
   whom he had practiced austerities.

   The Four Noble Truths were originally spoken by the Buddha, not in the
   form of a religious or philosophical text, but in the form of a common
   medical prescription of the time.

Nirvana

   Nirvana is the extinguishment of all desire, delusion and ignorance. It
   has been likened to the snuffing out of a candle, where the spirit is
   freed from all worldly passions; it is the realization that the Self
   does not exist, and that human desires are empty. An enlightened
   Buddhist is able to act in this world with complete detachment (without
   desire), and their actions have no karma. A Buddhist who has attained
   Nirvana has escaped the world of cause-and-effect (they are free from
   the cycle of birth and rebirth). The realisation of Nirvana is a happy
   experience (but not the sensation of joy). Nirvana is fully realized at
   death, but can be experienced before death. There are four stages in
   the Buddhist life:
     * 1. The “Stream-Entrant” (Bhikku) catches a glimpse of Nirvana,
       understands the concept of non-self and eliminates the possibility
       of being reborn in the lower realms of existence. They also develop
       a strong faith in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha (also known
       as the Triple Gem) and will only be reborn a maximum of seven more
       lives.
     * 2. The “Once-Returner” (Arhant) eliminates sensual desires and will
       be born into the human world only once more.
     * 3. The “Non-Returner” (Boddhisattva) after passing away from the
       human realm is born in the "Brahma" heaven, where the body does not
       exist as desire and delusion have been destroyed. After achieving
       this stage the person has already destroyed the first 5 fetters.
     * 4. The “Holy One” (Buddha) is completely pure and free from desire,
       delusion and ignorance. That person has experienced Nirvana and
       will know it fully at death, when all matter, sensations,
       perceptions, mental formations, and consciousness will disappear
       forever.

The Noble Eightfold Path

   The eight-spoked Dharmachakra. The eight spokes represent the Noble
   Eightfold Path of Buddhism.
   Enlarge
   The eight-spoked Dharmachakra. The eight spokes represent the Noble
   Eightfold Path of Buddhism.
   According to the Buddha, if a person does not follow the goal of Total
   Realization, one lives one's life like a preoccupied child playing with
   toys in a house that is burning to the ground.

   The Noble Eightfold Path is the way to the cessation of suffering, the
   fourth part of the Four Noble Truths. In order to fully understand the
   noble truths and investigate whether they were in fact true, the Buddha
   recommended that a certain path be followed which consists of:
    1. Right Viewpoint - Realizing the Four Noble Truths (samyag-dṛṣṭi,
       sammā-diṭṭhi)
    2. Right Values - Commitment to mental and ethical growth in
       moderation (samyak-saṃkalpa, sammā-saṅkappa)
    3. Right Speech - One speaks in a non hurtful, not exaggerated,
       truthful way (samyag-vāc, sammā-vācā)
    4. Right Actions - Wholesome action, avoiding action that would do
       harm (samyak-karmānta, sammā-kammanta)
    5. Right Livelihood - One's job does not harm in any way oneself or
       others; directly or indirectly (weapon maker, drug dealer, etc.)
       (samyag-ājīva, sammā-ājīva}
    6. Right Effort - One makes an effort to improve (samyag-vyāyāma,
       sammā-vāyāma)
    7. Right Mindfulness - Mental ability to see things for what they are
       with clear consciousness (samyak-smṛti, sammā-sati)
    8. Right Meditation - State where one reaches enlightenment and the
       ego has disappeared (samyak-samādhi, sammā-samādhi)

   The word samyak means "perfect". There are a number of ways to
   interpret the Eightfold Path. On one hand, the Eightfold Path is spoken
   of as being a progressive series of stages through which the
   practitioner moves, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of
   another, whereas others see the states of the 'Path' as requiring
   simultaneous development. It is also common to categorize the Eightfold
   Path into prajñā (Pāli paññā, wisdom), śīla (Pāli sīla, virtuous
   behaviour) and samādhi (concentration).

Bodhi

   Bodhi ( Pāli and Sanskrit बॊधि, lit. awakening) is a title given in
   Buddhism to the specific awakening experience attained by the Buddha.
   After attainment of Bodhi, it is believed one is freed from the cycle
   of saṃsāra: birth, suffering, death and rebirth. Bodhi is attained only
   by the accomplishment of the pāramitās (perfections), when the Four
   Noble Truths are fully grasped, and when all karma has reached
   cessation. At this moment, all greed (lobha), hatred (Pali doṣa,
   delusion (moha), ignorance (Sanskrit avidyā, Pāli avijjā), craving
   (Sanskrit त्र्श्ण, [[tṛṣṇā]], Pāli taṇhā) and belief in that which is
   not the self ( anātmān, Pāli anāttā) are extinguished. Bodhi thus
   implies understanding of anātman (Pāli anatta), the absence of
   ego-centeredness. All schools of Buddhism recognise three types of
   Bodhi. They are Śrāvakabodhi (Pāli: Sāvakabodhi), Pratyekabodhi (Pāli:
   Paccekabodhi) and Samyaksambodhi (Pāli: Sammāsambodhi), the perfect
   enlightenment by which a Bodhisattva becomes a fully enlightened
   Buddha. The aspiration to attain the state of samyaksambodhi, known as
   the Bodhisattva ideal, is considered as the highest ideal of Buddhism.

Karma

   In a discourse (A.N. VI.63 Nibbedhika Sutta) the Buddha said:

          “Intention, monks, is karma I say. Having willed, one acts
          through body, speech and mind”.

   According to the Buddha the moral order rests on each individual and
   not on any divine being:

          "Owners of their own Karma, O young man, are living beings heirs
          of their Karma, have karma as the wombs from which they spring,
          having Karma as their refuge. Karma marks of living being,
          making them become depraved and excellent." (Culakamma vibhanga
          sutta.)

   In Buddhism, Karma has a specific meaning quite different from other
   teachings. Karma means action derived from mental intent or volition
   and its result ( Vipaka) or its effect upon the doer of that volitional
   deed (be that deed one of thought, word or physical action).

Middle Way

   The primary guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the Middle Way
   which was discovered by the Buddha prior to his enlightenment ( bodhi).
   The Middle Way or Middle Path is often described as the practice of
   non-extremism; a path of moderation away from the extremes of
   self-indulgence and opposing self-mortification.

Refuge in the Three Jewels

   Footprint of the Buddha with Dharmacakra and triratna, 1st century CE,
   Gandhāra.
   Enlarge
   Footprint of the Buddha with Dharmacakra and triratna, 1st century CE,
   Gandhāra.

   Acknowledging the Four Noble Truths and making the first step in the
   Noble Eightfold Path requires taking refuge, as the foundation of one's
   religious practice, in Buddhism's Three Jewels (Sanskrit: त्रिरत्न
   Triratna or रत्नत्रय Ratna-traya, Pali: तिरतन Tiratana). The buddha who
   chooses the bodhisattva path makes a vow/pledge. This is considered the
   ultimate expression of compassion.

   The Three Jewels are:
     * The Buddha (i.e., Awakened One). This is a title for those who
       attained enlightenment similar to the Buddha and helped others to
       attain it. See also the Tathāgata and Śākyamuni Buddha. The Buddha
       could also be represented as the wisdom that understands Dharma,
       and in this regard the Buddha represents the perfect wisdom that
       sees reality in its true form.
     * The Dharma: The teachings or law as expounded by the Buddha. Dharma
       also means the law of nature based on behaviour of a person and its
       consequences to be experienced (action and reaction).
     * The Sangha: This term literally means "group" or "congregation,"
       but when it is used in Buddhist teaching the word refers to one of
       two very specific kinds of groups: either the community of Buddhist
       monastics (bhikkhus and bhikkhunis), or the community of people who
       have attained at least the first stage of Awakening (Sotapanna (
       pali सॊतपन्न) - one who has entered the stream to enlightenment).
       It also consists of laywomen and laymen, the caretakers of the
       monks, those who have accepted parts of the monastic code but who
       have not been ordained as monks or nuns.

   The Buddha presented himself as a model and beseeched his followers to
   have faith (Sanskrit श्रद्ध śraddhā, Pāli saddhā) in his example of a
   human who escaped the pain and danger of existence. The Dharma, i.e.
   the teaching of the Buddha, offers a refuge by providing guidelines for
   the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of enlightenment. The
   Saṅgha (Buddhist Order of monks) provides a refuge by preserving the
   authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further examples that
   the truth of the Buddha's teachings is attainable.

   Many Buddhists believe that there is no otherworldly salvation from
   one's karma. The suffering caused by the karmic effects of previous
   thoughts, words and deeds can be alleviated by following the Noble
   Eightfold Path, although the Buddha of some Mahayana sutras, such as
   the Lotus Sutra, the Angulimaliya Sutra and the Nirvana Sutra, also
   teaches that powerful sutras such as the above-named can, through the
   very act of their being heard or recited, wipe out great swathes of
   negative karma.

Śīla (Virtuous Behaviour)

   Śīla (Sanskrit) or sīla ( Pāli) is usually rendered into English as
   "behavioural discipline", "morality", or ethics. It is often translated
   as "precept". It is an action that is an intentional effort. It is one
   of the three practices (sila - samadhi - panya) and the second
   pāramitā. It refers to moral purity of thought, word, and deed. The
   four conditions of śīla are chastity, calmness, quiet, and
   extinguishment, i.e. no longer being susceptible to perturbation by the
   passions.

   Sīla refers to overall (principles of) ethical behaviour. There are
   several levels of sila, which correspond to 'basic morality' ( five
   precepts), 'basic morality with asceticism' ( eight precepts), 'novice
   monkhood' ( ten precepts) and 'monkhood' (Vinaya or Patimokkha). Lay
   people generally undertake to live by the five precepts which are
   common to all Buddhist schools. If they wish, they can choose to
   undertake the eight precepts, which have some additional precepts of
   basic asceticism.

   The five precepts are not given in the form of commands such as "thou
   shalt not ...", but are training rules in order to live a better life
   in which one is happy, without worries, and can meditate well.
     * 1. To refrain from taking life. (i.e. non-violence towards sentient
       life forms)
     * 2. To refrain from taking that which is not freely given (i.e. not
       committing theft).
     * 3. To refrain from sensual misconduct (abstinence from immoral
       sexual behaviour).
     * 4. To refrain from lying. (i.e. speaking truth always)
     * 5. To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness.

   In the eight precepts, the third precept on sexual misconduct is made
   more strict, and becomes a precept of celibacy.

   The three additional rules of the eight precepts are:
     * 6. To refrain from eating at the wrong time (only eat from sunrise
       to noon).
     * 7. To refrain from dancing, using jewellery, going to shows, etc.
     * 8. To refrain from using a high, luxurious bed.

   Vinaya is the specific moral code for monks. In includes the
   Patimokkha, a set of 227 rules in the Theravadin recension. The precise
   content of the vinayapitaka (scriptures on Vinaya) differ slightly
   according to different schools, and different schools or subschools set
   different standards for the degree of adherence to Vinaya. Novice-monks
   use the ten precepts, which are the basic precepts for monastics.

   In Mahayana Buddhism, there is also a distinctive Vinaya and ethics
   contained within the Mahayana Brahmajala Sutra (not to be confused with
   the Pali text of that name) for Bodhisattvas, where, for example, the
   eating of meat is frowned upon and vegetarianism is actively encouraged
   (see vegetarianism in Buddhism).

Samadhi/Bhāvana (Meditative Cultivation)

   In the language of the Noble Eightfold Path, samyaksamādhi is "right
   concentration". The primary means of cultivating samādhi is meditation.
   Almost all Buddhist schools agree that the Buddha taught two types of
   meditation, viz. samatha meditation (Sanskrit: śamatha) and vipassanā
   meditation (Sanskrit: vipaśyanā). Upon development of samādhi, one's
   mind becomes purified of defilement, calm, tranquil, and luminous.

   Once the meditator achieves a strong and powerful concentration (
   jhāna, Sanskrit ध्यानम् dhyāna), his mind is ready to penetrate and
   gain insight ( vipassanā) into the ultimate nature of reality,
   eventually obtaining release from all suffering. The cultivation of
   mindfulness is essential to mental concentration, which is needed to
   achieve insight.

   Samatha Meditation starts from being mindful to an object or idea,
   which is expanded to one's body, mind and entire surroundings, leading
   to a state of total concentration and tranquility (jhāna) There are
   many variations in the style of meditation, from sitting cross-legged
   or kneeling to chanting or walking. The most common method of
   meditation is to concentrate on one's breath, because this practice can
   lead to both samatha and vipassana.

   In Buddhist practice, it is said that while samatha meditation can calm
   the mind, only vipassanā meditation can reveal how the mind was
   disturbed to start with, which is what leads to jñāna (Pāli ñāṇa
   knowledge) vijñāna (Pāli viññāṇa awareness), prajñā (Pāli paññā pure
   understanding) and thus can lead to nirvāṇa (Pāli nibbāna).

Prajñā (Wisdom)

   Prajñā (Sanskrit प्रञ) or paññā ( Pāli पन्न) means wisdom that is based
   on a realization of dependent origination, The Four Noble Truths and
   Noble Eightfold Path. Prajñā is the wisdom that is able to extinguish
   afflictions and bring about bodhi. It is spoken of as the principal
   means, by its enlightenment, of attaining nirvāṇa, through its
   revelation of the true nature of all things. Prajñā is also listed as
   the sixth of the six pāramitās.

   Initially, prajñā is attained at a conceptual level by means of
   listening to sermons (dharma talks), reading and sometimes reciting
   Buddhist texts and engaging in discourse. The Buddha taught dharma to
   his disciples mainly through the mean of discourse or sermon, many
   attaining bodhi upon hearing the Buddha's discourse.

   Once the conceptual understanding is attained, it is applied to daily
   life so that each Buddhist can verify the truth of the Buddha's
   teaching at a practical level. Lastly, one engages in insight (
   vipassanā, Sanskrit vipaśyanā) meditation (Citation needed) to attain
   such wisdom at intuitive level. It should be noted that one could
   theoretically attain bodhi at any point of practice, while listening to
   a sermon, while conducting business of daily life or while in
   meditation.

Buddhism Symbols

   The eight auspicious symbols of Buddhism are:
     * the Conch Shell
     * the Lotus
     * the Wheel
     * the Parasol (Umbrella)
     * the Endless Knot
     * the Pair of Golden Fishes
     * the Banner Proclaiming Victory
     * the Treasure Vase

Buddhism after the Buddha

   Soon after the parinirvāṇa (Pāli: parinibbāna, "complete
   extinguishment") of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held. As
   with any ancient Indian tradition, transmission of teaching was done
   orally. The primary purpose of the assembly was to collectively recite
   the teaching to ensure that no errors occur in oral transmission. In
   the first council, Ānanda, the Buddha's personal attendant was called
   upon to recite the discourses ( sūtras, Pāli suttas) of the Buddha.
   Upāli, another disciple, recited the monastic rules (Vinaya).

Early Buddhism

   As the Saṅgha gradually grew over the next century a dispute arose
   regarding nine (subtle) points of discipline. A Second Buddhist Council
   (traditionally believed to have taken place 100 years after the
   Buddha's death) was held to resolve the points at dispute, and these
   were resolved. The result was that those 9 practices were declared
   unallowed according to Vinaya. After the second council however, some
   schisms occurred, and to resolve those schism and determine orthodoxy,
   a Third Buddhist Council was held at Pataliputta.

   These schisms occurred within the traditions of Early Buddhism, at a
   time when the Mahāyāna movement either did not exist at all, or only
   existed as a current of thought not yet identified with a separate
   school.

   One of the basic schisms was between the Sthaviras and the
   Mahāsāṅghikas. The fortunate survival of accounts of schisms from both
   sides of the dispute reveals disparate traditions; the Sthaviras
   claimed that the Mahāsāṅghikas were trying to dilute the Vinaya by
   ignoring certain rules; the Mahāsāṅghikas argued that the Sthaviras
   were trying to expand the Vinaya by illegitimately introducing new
   rules not sanctioned by the Buddha; they may also have challenged what
   they perceived to be excessive claims or inhumanly high criteria for
   Arhatship. Both parties, therefore, appealed to tradition. The
   Sthaviras gave rise to several schools, one of which was the Theravāda
   school.

   Following (or leading up to) the schisms, each Saṅgha started to
   accumulate an Abhidharma, a collection of philosophical commentaries on
   the discourse of the Buddha. Such commentaries probably existed in the
   time of the Buddha as very early of simple lists. However, as time went
   on and Buddhism spread further, the (perceived) teachings of the Buddha
   were formalized in a more systematic manner in a new Pitaka: the
   Abhidhamma Pitaka. Some modern academics refer to it as Abhidhamma
   Buddhism. Interestingly, the Mahasanghika school did not have an
   Abhidhamma Pitaka, which agrees with their statement that they did not
   want to add to the Buddha's teachings. But according to Chinese
   pilgrims Fa Xian (5th century CE) and Yuan Chwang (7th century CE),
   they had procured a copy of Abhidhamma which belonged to the
   Mahasanghika School.
   Buddhist proselytism at the time of emperor Aśoka the Great (260–218
   BCE).
   Enlarge
   Buddhist proselytism at the time of emperor Aśoka the Great (260–218
   BCE).

   Buddhism spread slowly in India until the time of the Mauryan emperor
   Aśoka the Great, who was a public supporter of the religion. The
   support of Aśoka and his descendants led to the construction of more
   Buddhist religious memorials ( stūpas) and to efforts to spread
   Buddhism throughout the enlarged Maurya empire and even into
   neighboring lands – particularly to the Iranian-speaking regions of
   Afghanistan and Central Asia, beyond the Mauryas' northwest border, and
   to the island of Sri Lanka south of India. These two missions, in
   opposite directions, would ultimately lead, in the first case to the
   spread of Buddhism into China, and in the second case, to the emergence
   of Theravāda Buddhism and its spread from Sri Lanka to the coastal
   lands of Southeast Asia.

   This period marks the first spread of Buddhism beyond India. According
   to the edicts of Aśoka, emissaries were sent to various countries west
   of India in order to spread "Dhamma", particularly in eastern provinces
   of the neighboring Seleucid Empire, and possibly even farther to
   Hellenistic kingdoms of the Mediterranean. This led, a century later,
   to the emergence of Greek-speaking Buddhist monarchs in the Indo-Greek
   Kingdom, and to the development of the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhāra.
   During this period Buddhism was exposed to a variety of influences,
   from Persian and Greek civilization, and from changing trends in
   non-Buddhist Indian religions – themselves influenced by Buddhism.

Establishment of Theravāda Buddhism (Southern Tradition)

   In addition to the Edicts of Aśoka, Buddhist annals compiled at a later
   date offer a history of the Aśokan and post-Aśokan period. Among these
   annals are the Dīpavaṃsa, the Mahāvaṃsa, and the Samantapāsādika of the
   south Indian Vibhajjavāda (Sanskrit: Vibhajyavāda) saṅgha, beside the
   Divyāvadāna and the Avadānaśataka from the northern Sarvāstivāda (
   Pāli: Sabbatthivāda) saṅgha. According to the accounts of the
   Vibhajjavāda, Aśoka convened a third Buddhist council (c. 250 BCE),
   whose purpose was to produce a definitive text of the Buddha's words.
   The result, according to the Vibhajjavādins, was the compilation of the
   version of the Tripiṭaka (Pāli: Tipiṭaka) found in the Pāli Canon.

   The council also saw the formation of the saṅgha of the Vibhajjavāda
   ("school of analytical discourse") out of various schools of the
   Sthaviravāda lineage. Vibhajjavādins claim that the first step to
   insight has to be achieved by the aspirant's experience, critical
   investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith. This school
   gradually declined on the Indian subcontinent, but its branch in Sri
   Lanka and South East Asia continues to survive; this branch of the
   school is now known as Theravada. The Theravāda school claims that the
   Sarvāstivada and the Dharmaguptaka schools were rejected by the
   council, although according to other sources the Dharmaguptaka school
   is classified as one of the Vibhajyavādin schools. However, these
   schools became influential in northwestern India and Central Asia and,
   since their teaching is found among the scriptures preserved by the
   Mahāyāna schools, they may have had some formative influence on the
   Mahāyāna. The Sarvāstivadins have not preserved an independent
   tradition about the Third Council.

   It was long believed in Theravāda tradition that the Pāli language is
   equivalent to Māgadhī, the eastern dialect of the kingdom of Magadha
   spoken by the Buddha. However, linguistic comparisons of the Edicts of
   Aśoka and the language of the Pāli canon show strong differences
   between the Māgadhī of the Edicts (characterized by such changes as r →
   l, masculine nominative singular of a-stems in -e, etc.) and Pāli. The
   greatest similarity to Pāli is found in a dialectal variant of the
   Edicts written on a rock near Girnar in Gujarat.

Rise of Mahayana Buddhism (Northern Tradition)

   Chinese Seated Buddha, Tang dynasty, Hebei province, ca. 650 CE.
   Chinese Buddhism is of the Mahayana tradition, with popular schools
   today being Pure Land and Zen.
   Enlarge
   Chinese Seated Buddha, Tang dynasty, Hebei province, ca. 650 CE.
   Chinese Buddhism is of the Mahayana tradition, with popular schools
   today being Pure Land and Zen.

   The precise geographical origins of Mahayana are unknown. It is likely
   that various elements of Mahayana developed independently from the 1st
   century BCE onwards, initially within several small individual
   communities, in areas to the north-west within the Kushan Empire
   (within present-day northern Pakistan), and in areas within the
   Shatavahana Empire, including Amaravati to the south-east (in
   present-day Andhra Pradesh), to the west around the port of Bharukaccha
   (present-day Bharuch, a town near Bombay), and around the various cave
   complexes, such as Ajanta and Karli (in present-day Gujarat and
   Maharashtra). On one side, Mahayana was a movement of lay Buddhists
   focused around stupa devotion. Pictures within the wall of a stupa
   representing the story of the Buddha and his previous reincarnation as
   a bodisattva were used to preach Buddhism to the masses. The Sangha, at
   the same time, became increasingly fragmented both in terms of
   Abhidharma and Vinaya practice. This led to a widening distance between
   the laity and Sangha. The Mahayana movement, on the other hand, was
   ecumenical, reflecting a wide range of influence from various sects.
   Monks representing different philosophical orientations could live in
   the same Sangha as long as they practiced the same Vinaya. Still, in
   terms of Abhidharma, the Sarvastivada school (which had been rejected
   by the 3rd council, according to the Theravada tradition) and the
   Dharmaguptaka school, both of which were widespread in the Kushan
   Empire, seem to have had major influence. Moreover, those who believe
   that Mahayana sutras were composed during this period speculate that
   the process of reshuffling of sutras according to various Abhidharma
   eventually led to editing which made the composition of new Mahayana
   sutras possible.}}
   Expansion of Mahayana Buddhism between the 1st – 10th century CE.
   Enlarge
   Expansion of Mahayana Buddhism between the 1st – 10th century CE.

   Around 100 CE, the Kushan emperor Kanishka convened the fourth Buddhist
   council and is usually associated with the formal rise of Mahayana
   Buddhism. This council is not recognised by Theravada line of Buddhism.
   This council did not simply rely on the original Tripitaka in the third
   council. Instead, a set of new scriptures, mostly notably, the Lotus
   Sutra, an early version of the Heart Sutra and the Amitabha Sutra were
   approved, as well as fundamental principles of doctrine based around
   the concept of salvation for the masses (hence Mahāyāna "great
   vehicle") and the concept of Buddhas and bodhisattva who embody
   transcendent Buddha-nature who strive to achieve such goal. The new
   scriptures were first written in Sanskrit. From that point on, and in
   the space of a few centuries, Mahayana would flourish and spread from
   the India to Southeast Asia, and towards the north to Central Asia and
   then east to China where Mahayana was Sinicized and this Sinicized
   Mahayana would be passed on to Korea, Vietnam and finally to Japan in
   538 CE. The East Asians would go on to write more indigenous sutras and
   commentaries to the Mahayana Canon. The most complete Mahayana Canon
   today is in the Chinese language.

Emergence of the Vajrayāna

   The Wheel of Life from the country Bhutan. The Wheel of Life is used
   predominantly today in the Vajrayana tradition of Buddhism.
   Enlarge
   The Wheel of Life from the country Bhutan. The Wheel of Life is used
   predominantly today in the Vajrayana tradition of Buddhism.

   Mahāyāna Buddhism received significant theoretical grounding from
   Nāgārjuna (c.150 - 250 CE), arguably the most influential scholar
   within the Mahāyāna tradition. From studying his writings, it is clear
   that Nāgārjuna was conversant with both the Nikāya (Hīnayāna)
   philosophies and the emerging Mahāyāna tradition. He made explicit
   references to Mahāyāna texts, but his philosophy was argued within the
   parameters set out by the Tripiṭaka sūtras. Completely repudiating the
   then-dominant Sarvāstivāda school, which argued for the existence of
   dharmas (factors of existence) in past, present, and future, Nāgārjuna
   asserted that the nature of the dharmas (hence the enlightenment) to be
   śūnya (void or empty), bringing together other key Buddhist doctrines,
   particularly anātman (no-self) and pratītyasamutpāda (dependent
   origination). His school of thought is known as the Madhyamaka.

   After the end of the Kuṣāṇas, Buddhism flourished in India during the
   dynasty of the Guptas (4th – 6th century). Mahāyāna centres of learning
   were established, the most important one being the Nālandā University
   in north-eastern India. Sarvāstivāda teaching, which was criticized by
   Nāgārjuna was reformulated by scholars such as Vasubandhu and Asaṅga
   and were incorporated into the Yogācāra (Sanskrit: yoga practice)
   school. While the Madhyamaka school asserted that there is no
   ultimately real thing, the Yogācāra school asserts that only the mind
   is ultimately existent. These two schools of thought, in opposition or
   synthesis, form the basis of subsequent Mahāyāna theology.

   There are differing views as to just when Vajrayāna and its tantric
   practice started. In the Tibetan tradition, it is claimed that the
   historical Śākyamuni Buddha taught tantra, but as these are esoteric
   teachings, they were written down long after the Buddha's other
   teachings. The earliest texts appeared around the early 4th century.
   Nālandā University became a centre for the development of Vajrayāna
   theory and continued as the source of leading-edge Vajrayāna practices
   up through the 11th century. These practices, scriptures and theory
   were transmitted to China, Tibet, Indochina and Southeast Asia. China
   generally received Indian transmission up to the 11th century including
   tantric practice, while a vast amount of what is considered to be
   Tibetan Buddhism (Vajrayāna) stems from the late (9th-12th century)
   Nālandā tradition.

Decline of Buddhism in India and Central Asia

   Buddhism was established in the northern regions of India and Central
   Asia, and kingdoms with Buddhist rulers such as Menander I and Kaniska.
   Under the rule of tolerant or even sympathetic Greco-Bactrian and
   Iranian Achaemenid kings, Buddhism flourished. The rulers of the
   Kushāna Empire adopted Buddhism, and it continued to thrive in the
   region under the rule of the Turk-Shāhīs.

   Buddhists were briefly persecuted under the Zoroastrian priest-king
   Kirder. Syncretism between Zoroastrianism and Buddhism had resulted in
   the rise of a 'Buddha-Mazda' divinity, which Kirder treated as heresy.

   The Hinayana traditions first spread among the Turkic tribes before
   combining with the Mahayana forms during the 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE
   to cover modern-day Pakistan, Kashmir, Afghanistan, eastern and coastal
   Iran, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan. These were the ancient
   states of Gandhara, Bactria, Parthia and Sogdia from where it spread to
   China. Among the first of these Turkic tribes to adopt Buddhism was the
   Turki- Shahi who adopted Buddhism as early as the 3rd century BCE. It
   was not, however, the exclusive faith of this region. There were also
   Zoroastrians, Hindus, Nestorian Christians, Jews, Manichaeans, and
   followers of shamanism, Tengrism, and other indigenous, nonorganized
   systems of belief.

   From the 4th Century CE on, Hindu dynasties had achieved preeminence
   elsewhere in India. Even in regions of Buddhist predominance, such as
   the northwest ( Pañjāb) and the lower Gangetic plain ( Uttar Pradesh
   and Bengal), the Indian caste system and other characteristics of
   Hinduism were found. In political contests between Hindu and Buddhist
   kingdoms, Buddhist rulers were gradually replaced by Hindu ones. By the
   4th to 5th century Buddhism was already in decline in northern India,
   even though it was achieving multiple successes in Central Asia and
   along the Silk Road as far as China.

   The Buddhist states of Central Asia were weakened in the 6th century
   following the invasion of the White Huns and Buddhism suffered as
   recorded by Xuanzang. Later Buddhist regions in Central Asia came
   either under the sway of the Persian Sāsānids or Tibet. When the Muslim
   Arabs overthrew the Sāssānids they encountered Buddhists in the eastern
   provinces of the Persian Empire. They called them by the Persian name
   of butparast, literally meaning "buddha-worshipper", although the term
   has come to be used generally for any religion in which cult images
   play a role. Several high officials of the Abbāsid Caliphate, notably
   the Barmakids, were descended from these East Iranian Buddhists.

   When Muhammad ibn Qāsim led the invasion of Sindh at the mouth of the
   Indus river, he was aided by some Buddhists in his campaign against
   their Hindu overlord, Rājā Dahir. Relations with later Iranian rulers
   such as the Saffarids and Samanids were more difficult; Buddhist
   monasteries and stūpas were not exempt from looting under Arab rule.

   After the disintegration of the Abbāsid Caliphate, the Muslim Turks
   rose to prominence among the Persian emirates that emerged in Central
   Asia and Afghanistan. In the 10th century CE, one of them, Mahmūd of
   Ghaznī, defeated the Hindō-Shāhīs and finally brought the region firmly
   under Muslim rule through Afghanistan and the Pañjāb. He demolished
   monasteries alongside temples during his raid across north-western
   India but left those within his domains and Afghanistan alone and
   al-Biruni recorded the Buddha as a prophet "burxan".

   The originally pagan Turkic tribes who lived in western Central Asia
   converted to Islām as they came to be increasingly influenced by
   Persian culture. As the Turkic tribes of Central Asia battled for
   control of land, similarly an ideological battle waged within them as
   Sufis, faced with an increasing hostile environment in Arabia, moved to
   Transoxania and found fertile ground here for converts among the
   Buddhist and non-Buddhist Turkic tribes alike. Buddhism persisted,
   together with Christianity, Manichaeism, Zoroastrianism, and shamanism
   in areas to the east (modern Xinjiang) for several centuries, which did
   not become overwhelmingly Muslim until the 15th century CE; however,
   under the two-pronged onslaught Buddhism waned and over time Central
   Asia gradually became predominantly Muslim.

   In 1215 Genghis Khan conquered Afghanistan and his horde devastated the
   local population indiscriminately; in 1227 after his death his conquest
   was divided and Chagatai established the Chagatai Khanate while Hulegu
   established the Il Khanate where Buddhism was the state religion across
   Muslim lands. In the Chagatai Khanate the Buddhist Turkic tribes slowly
   converted to Islam, including the occasional Khan . When Tarmashirin
   came to power he made Islam the official religion of the region in
   1326. In the Il Khanate, Hulegu and his successors Abaqa and Arghun
   also established Buddhism as the state religion but were hostile to the
   Muslims. Many mosques were destroyed and numerous stupas built;
   however, when Ghazan came to power in 1295 and converted he reverted
   the state religion to Islam and the climate became hostile towards
   Buddhism. Today no stupas built by the earlier Mongol Khans survive,
   and after Ghazan's reign little mention of Buddhism can be found in
   Afghanistan and Central Asia.

   Buddhists retained power in parts of northern India, in Kaśmīr and
   especially in Bengal, where the Buddhist Pāla kings ruled from the
   8th-12th centuries CE. These last Buddhist strongholds played an
   important role in the evolution of the Vajrayāna and the transmission
   of that form of Buddhism to Tibet before they collapsed under assault
   from the Hindu Sena dynasty.

   Elsewhere in India, Buddhism suffered from pressure by Hindu dynasties,
   such as the increasingly powerful Rajputs, as well as competition from
   a Hinduism that had gained ideological coherence and emotional vigor
   from such movements as Vedānta philosophy and Bhakti devotionalism. One
   symptom of increased Hindu confidence with regard to Buddhism was the
   identification of the Buddha as an avatāra of the Hindu god Vishnu – an
   identification which contradicted basic Buddhist understandings about
   the nature of a Buddha and of nirvāna.

   In 1193, only a few decades after the fall of the Pāla kingdom,
   Muhammad Khiljī destroyed Nālandā, the great Buddhist university.
   Khiljī was one of the generals of Qutbuddīn Aybak, a subject of the
   Afghan Ghurids but soon to become the monarch of a Muslim sultanate at
   Delhi. Khiljī's march across northern India caused a precipitous
   decline in the fortunes of Indian Buddhism, as he destroyed Buddhist
   walled monasteries fortified by the Sena kings (which he thought were
   cities), killed the monks and burned their libraries.

   After the Mongol invasions of Islamic lands across Central Asia, many
   Sufis also found themselves fleeing towards the newly established
   Islamic lands in India around the environs of Bengal. Here their
   influence, caste attitudes towards Buddhists, previous familiarity with
   Buddhism, lack of Buddhist political power or social structure along
   with Hinduism's revival movements such as Advaita and the rise of the
   syncretic bhakti movement, all contributed to a significant realignment
   of beliefs relegating Buddhism in India to the peripheries.

   By the 13th century CE, Buddhism had become a marginal religion in
   central India; without a monastic infrastructure, Buddhism could not
   easily maintain its identity, and many Buddhists, especially in Bengal,
   were converted to Islām, Hinduism or left for the Himalayan foothills.
   In Kaśmīr Buddhism remained a significant religion down to the early
   15th century, when it was displaced by Islām and Hinduism, except among
   the Tibetan peoples of Ladakh.

   Elements of Buddhism have remained within India to the current day: the
   Bauls of Bengal have a syncretic set of practices with strong emphasis
   on many Buddhist concepts. Other areas of India have never parted from
   Buddhism, including Ladakh and other Himalayan regions with a primarily
   Tibetan population. Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim are the other Indian
   states where Buddhism is practiced in great numbers. The Newars of
   Nepal also retain a form of Buddhism that differs from the Buddhism of
   Tibet. Furthermore, much of Buddhist philosophy was eventually absorbed
   into Hinduism.

Main Traditions

   Rock carvings at Dazu near Chongqing, China.
   Enlarge
   Rock carvings at Dazu near Chongqing, China.

   Buddhist schools are usually divided into two main branches: Theravāda
   Buddhism and Mahāyāna Buddhism. Vajrayāna is sometimes named as a
   third, but is more commonly considered a form of Mahāyāna Buddhism.

   Another way of categorizing Buddhist schools follows the major
   languages of the extant Buddhist canons, which exist in Pāli, Tibetan
   (also found in Mongolian translation) and Chinese collections, along
   with some texts that still exist in Sanskrit and Buddhist Hybrid
   Sanskrit. This is a useful division for practical purposes, but does
   not necessarily correspond to philosophical or doctrinal divisions.

   Despite the differences, there are common threads to almost all
   Buddhist branches:
     * All accept the Buddha as their teacher.
     * All accept the Middle Way, Dependent origination, the Four Noble
       Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path.
     * All accept that both the members of the laity and of the Sangha can
       pursue the path toward enlightenment ( bodhi).
     * All accept two types of Buddha and consider Buddhahood to be the
       highest attainment.

Theravāda

   Theravāda is Pāli for "the Doctrine of the Elders". Theravāda teaches
   one to encourage wholesome states of mind, avoid unwholesome states of
   mind, and to train the mind in meditation. The ultimate aim of
   practice, according to Theravāda Buddhism, is the attainment of freedom
   from suffering. Theravāda teaches that this experience of suffering is
   caused by mental defilements like greed, aversion and delusion, while
   freedom can be attained though putting into practice teachings like the
   Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path.

   The Theravāda school bases its practice and doctrine exclusively on the
   Pāli Canon and its commentaries. The Sutta collections and Vinaya texts
   of the Pāli Canon (and the corresponding texts in other versions of the
   Tripitaka), are generally considered by modern scholars to be the
   earliest Buddhist literature, and they are accepted as authentic in
   every branch of Buddhism.

   Theravāda is the only surviving representative of the historical early
   Buddhist schools. Theravāda is primarily practiced today in Sri Lanka,
   Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia as well as small portions of China,
   Vietnam, Malaysia and Singapore. It has a growing presence in Europe
   and America.

Mahāyāna

   Chinese Ming dynasty porcelain figure of Guanyin, "Goddess of Mercy."
   Enlarge
   Chinese Ming dynasty porcelain figure of Guanyin, "Goddess of Mercy."

   Mahayana is an inclusive faith characterized by the adoption of new
   texts, in addition to the traditional Pali canon, and a shift in the
   understanding of Buddhism. It goes beyond the traditional Theravada
   ideal of the release from suffering ( dukkha) and personal
   enlightenment of the arhats, to elevate the Buddha to a God-like
   status, and to create a pantheon of quasi-divine Bodhisattvas devoting
   themselves to personal excellence, ultimate knowledge and the salvation
   of humanity. In Mahayana, the Buddha became an idealized man-god and
   the Bodhisattva was the universal ideal of excellence.

   The Mahayana branch emphasizes infinite, universal compassion
   (maha-karuna) or the selfless, ultra-altruistic quest of the
   Bodhisattva to attain the "Awakened Mind" ( bodhicitta) of Buddhahood
   so as to have the fullest possible knowledge of how most effectively to
   lead all sentient beings into Nirvana. Emphasis is also often placed on
   the notions of Emptiness ( shunyata, prajnaparamita and Buddha-nature.
   The Mahayana can also on occasion communicate a vision of the Buddha or
   Dharma which amounts to mysticism and give expression to a form of
   mentalist pantheism or panentheism ( God in Buddhism).

   In addition to the Tripitaka scriptures, which (within Mahayana) are
   viewed as valid but only provisional or basic, Mahayana schools
   recognize all or part of a genre of Mahayana scriptures. Some of these
   sutras became for Mahayanists a manifestation of the Buddha himself.
   Mahayana Buddhism shows a great deal of doctrinal variation and
   development over time, and even more variation in terms of practice.
   While there is much agreement on general principles, there is
   disagreement over which texts are more authoritative.

   Native Mahayana Buddhism is practiced today in China, Japan, Korea and
   most of Vietnam. The Buddhism practiced in Tibet, the Himalayan
   regions, and Mongolia is also Mahayana in origin, but will be discussed
   below under the heading of Vajrayana. Two popular schools of Mahāyāna
   today are Chan/Zen and Pure Land.

Vajrayāna

   Young Tibetan Buddhist monks of Drepung
   Enlarge
   Young Tibetan Buddhist monks of Drepung

   The Vajrayāna or "Diamond Vehicle" (also referred to as Mantrayāna,
   Tantrayāna, Tantric Buddhism, or esoteric Buddhism) shares the basic
   concepts of Mahāyāna, but also includes a vast array of spiritual
   techniques designed to enhance Buddhist practice. Vajrayāna Buddhism
   exists today in the form of two major sub-schools: Tibetan Buddhism and
   Shingon Buddhism. One component of the Vajrayāna is harnessing
   psycho-physical energy as a means of developing profoundly powerful
   states of concentration and awareness. These profound states are in
   turn to be used as an efficient path to Buddhahood. Using these
   techniques, it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in
   one lifetime, or even as little as three years. In addition to the
   Theravāda and Mahāyāna scriptures, Vajrayāna Buddhists recognise a
   large body of texts that include the Buddhist Tantras. Native Vajrayāna
   is practiced today mainly in Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, Mongolia, Kalmykia,
   Siberia, areas of India, and – in the Shingon (Zhènyān, 真言) and Tendai
   schools – in China and Japan.

Intellectualism and Buddhist worldview

   In his lifetime, the Buddha had not answered several philosophical
   questions. On issues like whether the world is eternal or non-eternal,
   finite or infinite, unity or separation of the body and the self,
   complete inexistence of a person after nirvana and then death, nature
   of the Supreme Truth, etc, the Buddha had remained silent. Commentators
   explain that such questions distract from practical activity for
   realizing enlightenment.

   In numerous Mahayana sutras and Tantras, the Buddha stresses that
   Dharma (Truth) and the Buddha himself in their ultimate modus cannot
   truly be understood with the ordinary rational mind or logic: both
   Buddha and Reality (ultimately One) transcend all worldly concepts. The
   "prajna-paramita" sutras have this as one of their major themes. What
   is urged is study, mental and moral self-cultivation, and veneration of
   the sutras, which are as fingers pointing to the moon of Truth, but
   then to let go of ratiocination and to experience direct entry into
   Liberation itself. The Buddha in the self-styled "Uttara-Tantra", the
   Mahaparinirvana Sutra, insists that, while pondering upon Dharma is
   vital, one must then relinquish fixation on words and letters, as these
   are utterly divorced from Liberation and the Buddha. The Tantra
   entitled the "All-Creating King" ( Kunjed Gyalpo Tantra) also
   emphasises how Buddhic Truth lies beyond the range of thought and is
   ultimately mysterious. The Supreme Buddha, Samantabhadra, states there:

   "The mind of perfect purity [i.e. the Awakened Mind of Buddha] ... is
   beyond thinking and inexplicable ... It dwells in the self-perfected
   bliss which is deedless and self-perfected ... I am the best path of
   liberation. It is a path, subtle and difficult to understand, which is
   non-speculative and beyond thinking ... It cannot be captured in words
   ... It is firm, difficult to comprehend, and totally inexplicable."
   (The Sovereign All-Creating Mind tr. by E.K. Neumaier-Dargyay, pp.
   111-112).

   Also later, the famous Indian Buddhist yogi and teacher mahasiddha
   Tilopa discouraged any intellectual activity in his 6 words of advice.

   Buddhist missionaries, however, often faced philosophical questions
   from other religions whose answers they themselves did not know. For
   those, who have attachment to intellectualism, Buddhist scholars
   produced a prodigious quantity of intellectual theories, philosophies
   and worldview concepts. See e.g. Abhidharma, Buddhist philosophy and
   Reality in Buddhism.

Buddhist texts

   Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu reads Mahayana sutras from an old
   woodblock copy of the Tibetan Kanjur.
   Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu reads Mahayana sutras from an old
   woodblock copy of the Tibetan Kanjur.

   Buddhist scriptures and other texts exist in great variety. Different
   schools of Buddhism place varying levels of value on them. Some schools
   venerate certain texts as religious objects in themselves, while others
   take a more scholastic approach. The Buddhist canon of scripture is
   known in Sanskrit as the Tripitaka and in Pāli as the Tipitaka. These
   terms literally mean "three baskets" and refer to the three main
   divisions of the canon, which are:
     * The Vinaya Pitaka, containing disciplinary rules for the Sanghas of
       Buddhist monks and nuns, as well as a range of other texts
       including explanations of why and how rules were instituted,
       supporting material, and doctrinal clarification.
     * The Sūtra Pitaka (Pāli: Sutta Pitaka), contains the actual
       discourses of the Buddha.
     * The Abhidharma Pitaka (Pāli: Abhidhamma Pitaka) contains
       commentaries or systematic expositions of the Buddha's teachings.

   Soon after the death of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was
   held; a monk named Mahākāśyapa (Pāli: Mahākassapa) presided. The goal
   of the council was to record the Buddha's sayings – sūtras (Sanskrit)
   or suttas (Pāli) – and codify monastic rules (Vinaya). Ānanda, the
   Buddha's personal attendant, was called upon to recite the discourses
   of the Buddha, and Upāli, another disciple, recited the rules of the
   Vinaya. These became the basis of the Tripitaka. However, this record
   was initially transmitted orally in form of chanting, and was committed
   to text in a much later period. Both the sūtras and the Vinaya of every
   Buddhist school contain a wide variety of elements including discourses
   on the Dharma, commentaries on other teachings, cosmological and
   cosmogonical texts, stories of the Buddha's previous lives, and lists
   relating to various subjects.

   The Theravāda and other Nikāya schools believe that the texts of their
   canon contain the actual words of the Buddha. The Theravāda canon, also
   known as the Pāli Canon after the language it was written in, contains
   some four million words. Other texts, such as the Mahāyāna sūtras, are
   also considered to be the word of the Buddha, but were transmitted
   either in secret, via lineages of mythical beings (such as the nāgas),
   or came directly from other Buddhas or bodhisattvas. Some six hundred
   Mahāyāna sutras have survived in Sanskrit or in Chinese or Tibetan
   translations.

   The followers of Theravāda Buddhism take the scriptures known as the
   Pāli Canon as definitive and authoritative, while the followers of
   Mahāyāna Buddhism base their faith and philosophy primarily on the
   Mahāyāna sūtras and their own versions of the Vinaya. The Pāli sutras,
   along with other, closely-related scriptures, are known to the other
   schools as the āgamas.

   Whereas the Theravādins adhere solely to the āgamas and their
   commentaries, the adherents of Mahāyāna accept both the agamas and the
   Mahāyāna sūtras as authentic and valid teachings of the Buddha,
   designed for different types of persons and different levels of
   spiritual penetration. For the Theravādins, however, the Mahayana
   sūtras are works of poetic fiction, not the words of the Buddha
   himself. The Theravadins are confident that the agamas represent the
   full and final statement by the Buddha of his Dhamma - and nothing more
   is truly needed beyond that. Anything added which claims to be the word
   of the Buddha and yet is not found in the Nikayas or their scholastic
   commentaries is treated with extreme caution if not outright rejection
   by Theravada.

   For the Mahāyānists, in contrast, the āgamas do indeed contain basic,
   foundational, and, therefore, relatively weighty pronouncements of the
   Buddha, but in their view, the Mahāyāna sutras articulate the Buddha's
   higher, more advanced and deeper doctrines, reserved for those who
   follow the exalted bodhisattva path. That path is built upon the
   motivation to achieve not only personal liberation, but Buddhahood
   itself in order to know how best to liberate all living beings from
   unhappiness. Hence the name Mahāyāna (lit., the Great Vehicle), which
   has room for both the general masses of sentient beings and those who
   are more developed. The "Great" of "Maha-yana" is indeed typical of
   much of this version of Buddhism - from the physical bigness
   (lengthiness) of some of the Mahayana sutras and the vastness of the
   Bodhisattva vow (to strive for all future time to help free other
   persons and creatures from pain), to the numbers of beings who are
   sought to be saved (infinitudes), to the (in some sutras and Tantras)
   final attainment of the Buddha's "Great Self" (mahatman) in the sphere
   of "Great Nirvana" (mahanirvana). For the Theravadins, however, this
   alleged "greatness" proclaimed by some Mahayana sutras does not
   necessarily equate to "true".

   Unlike many religions, Buddhism has no single central text that is
   universally referred to by all traditions. The size and complexity of
   the Buddhist canons have been seen by some (including Buddhist social
   reformer Babasaheb Ambedkar) as presenting barriers to the wider
   understanding of Buddhist philosophy.

   Over the years, various attempts have been made at synthesizing a
   single Buddhist text that will encompass all of the major principles of
   Buddhism. In the Theravada tradition, condensed 'study texts' were
   created that combined popular or influential scriptures into single
   volumes that could be studied by novice monks. Later in Sri Lanka, the
   Dhammapada was championed as a unifying scripture.

   Dwight Goddard collected what he felt was a representative sample of
   Buddhist scriptures- along with other classics of Eastern philosophy,
   such as the Tao Te Ching- into his Buddhist Bible in the 1920's. More
   recently, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar attempted to create a single, combined
   document of Buddhist principles with his “The Buddha and His Dhamma”.
   Other such efforts have persisted to the present day, but currently
   there is no single text widely accepted as being central to all
   Buddhist traditions.

Present state of Buddhism

   Typical interior of a temple in Korea
   Enlarge
   Typical interior of a temple in Korea

   Estimates of the number of Buddhists vary, but the most common figure
   today is between 350 and 400 million.
     * Theravāda Buddhism, using Pāli as its scriptural language, is the
       dominant form of Buddhism in Southeast Asia, Thailand, Sri Lanka,
       Myanmar and India.
     * Mahāyāna forms of Buddhism that use scriptures in Chinese are
       dominant in most of China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan and Vietnam as well
       as the Chinese communities around the world, especially within
       Indochina and Southeast Asia as well as in the West.
     * Vajrayāna Buddhism, using the Tibetan language, is found in Tibet
       and the surrounding area of India, Bhutan, Mongolia, Nepal,
       Tibet/China, and the Russian Federation. Poland, Denmark, Greece
       and the Russian Federation are the first European countries to
       recognize Buddhism as an official religion.
     * The Indian Buddhist Movement is a revival of Buddhism in India.
       This movement was initiated by B. R. Ambedkar in 1956 with a mass
       conversion ceremony of Hindu Untouchables now known as Dalits.
       Their practice is general and they do not follow any particular
       Buddhist school of thought.

   At the present time, the teachings of all three branches of Buddhism
   have spread throughout the world, and Buddhist texts are increasingly
   translated into local languages. While in the West, Buddhism is often
   seen as exotic and progressive, in the East, Buddhism is regarded as
   familiar and part of the establishment. Buddhists in Asia are
   frequently well organised and well funded. In a number of countries, it
   is recognised as an official religion and receives state support. In
   the West, Buddhism is recognised as one of the growing spiritual
   influences.

Buddhist Culture and Art

Comparative Study

   Buddhism is a fertile ground for comparative studies with different
   beliefs, philosophy, science, history, and various other aspects of
   Buddhism. In term of doctrine, dependent origination is Buddhism's
   primary contribution to metaphysics. This has wide-ranging implication
   in terms of theology, philosophy, and science. On the other hand,
   Buddhist emphasis on the Middle way not only provides a unique
   guideline for ethics but it has also allowed Buddhism to peacefully
   coexist with various local beliefs, customs, and institutions in
   adopted countries for most of its history.

   List of Buddhism related topics in comparative studies
     * Buddhism and Hinduism
     * Buddhism and Eastern teaching (Buddhism and East Asian teaching)
     * God in Buddhism (Buddhism and monotheism)
     * Christianity and Buddhism
     * Buddhist philosophy (Buddhism and Western philosophy)
     * Buddhist Ethics (Buddhism and ethics)
     * Buddhism and science (Buddhism and science)
     * Buddhism and Schism

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