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Buddhist art

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Art

   Buddhist art originated on the Indian subcontinent following the
   historical life of Gautama Buddha, 6th to 5th century BCE, and
   thereafter evolved by contact with other cultures as it spread
   throughout Asia and the world.

   Early Buddhist art, followed the Indian aniconic tradition which avoids
   direct representation of the human figure. Around the 1st century CE an
   iconic period emerged lasting to this day which represents the Buddha
   in human form.

   Buddhist art followed believers as the dharma spread, adapted, and
   evolved in each new host country. It developed to the north through
   Central Asia and into Eastern Asia to form the Northern branch of
   Buddhist art, and to the east as far as Southeast Asia to form the
   Southern branch of Buddhist art. In India, Buddhist art flourished and
   even influenced the development of Hindu art, until Buddhism nearly
   disappeared in India around the 10th century due in part to the
   vigorous expansion of Islam alongside Hinduism.

Aniconic phase (5th century - 1st century BCE)

   During the 2nd to 1st century BCE, sculptures became more explicit,
   representing episodes of the Buddha’s life and teachings. These took
   the form of votive tablets or friezes, usually in relation to the
   decoration of stupas. Although India had a long sculptural tradition
   and a mastery of rich iconography, the Buddha was never represented in
   human form, but only through some of his symbols.

   This reluctance towards anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha,
   and the sophisticated development of aniconic symbols to avoid it (even
   in narrative scene where other human figures would appear), seems to be
   connected to one of the Buddha’s sayings, reported in the Dighanikaya,
   that disfavored representations of himself after the extinction of his
   body. This tendency remained as late as the 2nd century CE in the
   southern parts of India, in the art of the Amaravati school (see:
   Mara's assault on the Buddha). It has been argued that earlier
   anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha may have been made of
   wood and may have perished since then. However, no related
   archaeological evidence has been found.

Iconic phase (1st century CE – present)

   Greco-Buddhist head of Buddha, stucco, Hadda Afghanistan, 1st-2nd
   century CE.
   Greco-Buddhist head of Buddha, stucco, Hadda Afghanistan, 1st-2nd
   century CE.

   Anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha started to emerge from
   the 1st century CE in northern India. The two main centers of creation
   have been identified as Gandhara in today’s Punjab, in Pakistan, and
   the region of Mathura, in central northern India.

   The art of Gandhara benefited from centuries of interaction with Greek
   culture since the conquests of Alexander the Great in 332 BCE and the
   subsequent establishment of the Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek Kingdoms,
   leading to the development of Greco-Buddhist art. Gandharan Buddhist
   sculpture displays Greek artistic influence, and it has been suggested
   that the concept of the “man-god” was essentially inspired by Greek
   mythological culture. Artistically, the Gandharan school of sculpture
   is said to have contributed wavy hair, drapery covering both shoulders,
   shoes and sandals, acanthus leaf decorations, etc.

   The art of Mathura tends to be based on a strong Indian tradition,
   exemplified by the anthropomorphic representation of divinities such as
   the Yaksas, although in a style rather archaic compared to the later
   representations of the Buddha. The Mathuran school contributed clothes
   covering the left shoulder of thin muslin, the wheel on the palm, the
   lotus seat, etc.

   Mathura and Gandhara also strongly influenced each other. During their
   artistic florescence, the two regions were even united politically
   under the Kushans, both being capitals of the empire. It is still a
   matter of debate whether the anthropomorphic representations of Buddha
   was essentially a result of a local evolution of Buddhist art at
   Mathura, or a consequence of Greek cultural influence in Gandhara
   through the Greco-Buddhist syncretism.
   Representation of the Buddha in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, 1st
   century CE.
   Representation of the Buddha in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, 1st
   century CE.

   This iconic art was characterized from the start by a realistic
   idealism, combining realistic human features, proportions, attitudes
   and attributes, together with a sense of perfection and serenity
   reaching to the divine. This expression of the Buddha as a both a man
   and a god became the iconographic canon for subsequent Buddhist art.

   Buddhist art continued to develop in India for a few more centuries.
   The pink sandstone sculptures of Mathura evolved during the Gupta
   period (4th to 6th century) to reach a very high fineness of execution
   and delicacy in the modeling. The art of the Gupta school was extremely
   influential almost everywhere in the rest of Asia. By the 10th century,
   Buddhist art creation was dying out in India, as Hinduism and Islam
   ultimately prevailed.

   As Buddhism expanded outside of India from the 1st century CE, its
   original artistic package blended with other artistic influences,
   leading to a progressive differentiation among the countries adopting
   the faith.
     * A Northern route was established from the 1st century CE through
       Central Asia, Tibet, China, Korea, and Japan, in which Mahayana
       Buddhism prevailed.
     * A Southern route, where Theravada Buddhism dominated, went through
       Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam.

Northern Buddhist art

   A Chinese wooden Bodhisattva from the Song Dynasty (960-1279 AD)
   A Chinese wooden Bodhisattva from the Song Dynasty ( 960- 1279 AD)

   The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism to Central Asia, China and
   ultimately Korea and Japan started in the 1st century CE with a
   semi-legendary account of an embassy sent to the West by the Chinese
   Emperor Ming (58-75 CE). However, extensive contacts started in the 2nd
   century CE, probably as a consequence of the expansion of the Kushan
   Empire into the Chinese territory of the Tarim Basin, with the
   missionary efforts of a great number of Central Asian Buddhist monks to
   Chinese lands. The first missionaries and translators of Buddhists
   scriptures into Chinese, such as Lokaksema, were either Parthian,
   Kushan, Sogdian or Kuchean.

   Central Asian missionary efforts along the Silk Road were accompanied
   by a flux of artistic influences, visible in the development of
   Serindian art from the 2nd through the 11th century CE in the Tarim
   Basin, modern Xinjiang. Serindian art often derives from the
   Greco-Buddhist art of the Gandhara district of what is now Pakistan,
   combining Indian, Greek and Roman influences. Silk Road Greco-Buddhist
   artistic influences can be found as far as Japan to this day, in
   architectural motifs, Buddhist imagery, and a select few
   representations of Japanese gods.

   The art of the northern route was also highly influenced by the
   development of Mahayana Buddhism, an inclusive faith characterized by
   the adoption of new texts, in addition to the traditional Pali canon,
   and a shift in the understanding of Buddhism. Mahayana goes beyond the
   traditional Theravada ideal of the release from suffering ( dukkha) and
   personal enlightenment of the arhats, to elevate the Buddha to a
   God-like status, and to create a pantheon of quasi-divine Bodhisattvas
   devoting themselves to personal excellence, ultimate knowledge and the
   salvation of humanity. Northern Buddhist art thus tends to be
   characterized by a very rich and syncretic Buddhist pantheon, with a
   multitude of images of the various Buddhas, Bodhisattvas and lesser
   deities.

Afghanistan

   Statue from a Buddhist monastery, 700 CE, Afghanistan
   Statue from a Buddhist monastery, 700 CE, Afghanistan

   Buddhist art in Afghanistan (old Bactria) persisted for several
   centuries until the spread of Islam in the 7th century. It is
   exemplified by the Buddhas of Bamyan. Other sculptures, in stucco,
   schist or clay, display very strong blending of Indian post- Gupta
   mannerism and Classical influence, Hellenistic or possibly even
   Greco-Roman.

   Although Islamic rule was rather tolerant of other religions “ of the
   Book”, it showed little tolerance for Buddhism, which was perceived as
   a religion depending on idolatry. Human figurative art forms also being
   prohibited under Islam, Buddhist art suffered numerous attacks, which
   culminated with the systematic destructions by the Taliban regime. The
   Buddhas of Bamyan, the sculptures of Hadda, and many of the remaining
   artifacts at the Afghanistan museum have been destroyed.

   The multiple conflicts since the 1980s also have led to a systematic
   pillage of archaeological sites apparently in the hope of reselling in
   the international market what artifacts could be found.

Central Asia

   Central Asia long played the role of a meeting place between China,
   India and Persia. During the 2nd century BCE, the expansion of the
   Former Han to the West led to increased contact with the Hellenistic
   civilizations of Asia, especially the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom.
   Serindian art, 6th-7th century terracotta, Tumshuq (Xinjiang).
   Serindian art, 6th-7th century terracotta, Tumshuq (Xinjiang).

   Thereafter, the expansion of Buddhism to the North led to the formation
   of Buddhist communities and even Buddhist kingdoms in the oases of
   Central Asia. Some Silk Road cities consisted almost entirely of
   Buddhist stupas and monasteries, and it seems that one of their main
   objectives was to welcome and service travelers between East and West.

   The eastern part of central Asia ( Chinese Turkestan ( Tarim Basin,
   Xinjiang) in particular have revealed an extremely rich Serindian art (
   wall paintings and reliefs in numerous caves, portable paintings on
   canvas, sculpture, ritual objects), displaying multiple influences from
   Indian and Hellenistic cultures. Works of art reminiscent of the
   Gandharan style, as well as scriptures in the Gandhari script Kharoshti
   have been found. These influences were rapidly absorbed however by the
   vigorous Chinese culture, and a strongly Chinese particularism develops
   from that point.

   See also: Dunhuang, Mogao Caves, Kingdom of Khotan, Silk Road, Silk
   Road transmission of Buddhism

China

   One of the first known Chinese Buddha sculptures, found in a late Han
   dynasty burial in Sichuan province. Circa 200 CE. The hair, the
   moustache, the robe indicate heavy influence of Gandharan styles.
   One of the first known Chinese Buddha sculptures, found in a late Han
   dynasty burial in Sichuan province. Circa 200 CE. The hair, the
   moustache, the robe indicate heavy influence of Gandharan styles.

   Buddhism arrived in China around the 1st century CE, and introduced new
   types of art into China, particularly in the area of statuary.
   Receiving this distant religion, strong Chinese traits were
   incorporated into Buddhist art.

Northern Dynasties

   Northern Wei Buddha Maitreya, 443 CE.
   Northern Wei Buddha Maitreya, 443 CE.

   In the 5th to 6th centuries, the Northern Dynasties, developed rather
   symbolic and abstract modes of representation, with schematic lines.
   Their style is also said to be solemn and majestic. The lack of
   corporeality of this art, and its distance from the original Buddhist
   objective of expressing the pure ideal of enlightenment in an
   accessible and realistic manner, progressively led to a change towards
   more naturalism and realism, leading to the expression of Tang Buddhist
   art.

   Sites preserving Northern Wei Dynasty Buddhist sculpture:
     * Longmen Grottoes, Henan
     * Bingling Temple, Gansu

Tang Dynasty

   Following a transition under the Sui Dynasty, Buddhist sculpture of the
   Tang evolved towards a markedly life-like expression. Because of the
   dynasty’s openness to foreign influences, and renewed exchanges with
   Indian culture due to the numerous travels of Chinese Buddhist monks to
   India, Tang dynasty Buddhist sculpture assumed a rather classical form,
   inspired by the Indian art of the Gupta period. During that time, the
   Tang capital of Chang'an (today's Xi'an) became an important centre for
   Buddhism. From there Buddhism spread to Korea, and Japanese embassies
   of Kentoshi helped it gain a foothold in Japan.
   Tang Bodhisattva.
   Tang Bodhisattva.

   However, foreign influences came to be negatively perceived in China
   towards the end of the Tang dynasty. In the year 845, the Tang emperor
   Wuzong outlawed all “foreign” religions (including Christian
   Nestorianism, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism) in order to support the
   indigenous religion, Taoism. He confiscated Buddhist possessions, and
   forced the faith to go underground, therefore affecting the development
   of the religion and its arts in China.

   Chan Buddhism however, at the origin of Japanese Zen, continued to
   prosper for some centuries, especially under the Song Dynasty
   (1127-1279), when Chan monasteries were great centers of culture and
   learning.

   The popularization of Buddhism in China has made the country home to
   one of the richest collections of Buddhist arts in the world. The Mogao
   Caves near Dunhuang and the Bingling Temple caves near Yongjing in
   Gansu province, the Longmen Grottoes near Luoyang in Henan province,
   the Yungang Grottoes near Datong in Shanxi province, and the Dazu Rock
   Carvings near Chongqing municipality are among the most important and
   renowned Buddhist sculptural sites. The Leshan Giant Buddha, carved out
   of a hillside in the 8th century during the Tang Dynasty and looking
   down on the confluence of three rivers, is still the largest stone
   Buddha statue in the world.

   See also: Buddhism in China, Longmen Grottoes, Mogao Caves, Yungang
   Grottoes, Henan, Tang Dynasty art, Bingling Temple

Korea

   Korean Buddhist art generally reflects an interaction between Chinese
   Buddhist influence and a strongly original Korean culture.
   Additionally, the art of the steppes, particularly Siberian and
   Scythian influences, are evident in early Korean Buddhist art based on
   the excavation of artifacts and burial goods such as Silla royal
   crowns, belt buckles, daggers, and comma-shaped gogok. The style of
   this indigenous art was geometric, abstract and richly adorned with a
   characteristic “barbarian” luxury. Although Chinese influence was
   strong, Korean Buddhist art "bespeaks a sobriety, taste for the right
   tone, a sense of abstraction but also of colours that curiously enough
   are in line with contemporary taste" (Pierre Cambon, Arts asiatiques-
   Guimet').

Three Kingdoms of Korea

   Bangasayusang, semi-seated contemplative Maitreya probably from Silla
   circa early 7th century.
   Bangasayusang, semi-seated contemplative Maitreya probably from Silla
   circa early 7th century.

   The first of the Three Kingdoms of Korea to officially receive Buddhism
   was Goguryeo in 372. However, Chinese records and the use of Buddhist
   motifs in Goguryeo murals indicate the introduction of Buddhism earlier
   than the official date. The Baekje Kingdom officially recognized
   Buddhism in 384. The Silla Kingdom, isolated and with no easy sea or
   land access to China, officially adopted Buddhism in 535 although the
   foreign religion was known in the kingdom due to the work of Goguryeo
   monks since the early fifth century. The introduction of Buddhism
   stimulated the need for artisans to create images for veneration,
   architects for temples, and the literate for the Buddhist sutras and
   transformed Korean civilization. Particularly important in the
   transmission of sophisticated art styles to the Korean kingdoms was the
   art of the "barbarian" Tuoba, a clan of non-Han Chinese Xianbei people
   who established the Northern Wei Dynasty in China in 386. The Northern
   Wei style was particularly influential in the art of the Goguryeo and
   Baekje. Baekje artisans later transmitted this style along with
   Southern Dynasty elements and distinct Korean elements to Japan. Korean
   artisans were highly selective of the styles they incorporated and
   combined different regional styles together to create a specific Korean
   Buddhist art style.
   Seokguram Grotto is a World Heritage Site and dates to the Unified
   Silla era.
   Seokguram Grotto is a World Heritage Site and dates to the Unified
   Silla era.

   While Goguryeo Buddhist art exhibited vitality and mobility akin with
   Northern Wei prototypes, the Baekje Kingdom was also in close contact
   with the Southern Dynasties of China and this close diplomatic contact
   is exemplified in the gentle and proportional sculpture of the Baekje,
   epitomized by Baekje sculpture exhibiting the fathomless smile known to
   art historians as the Baekje smile. . The Silla Kingdom also developed
   a distinctive Buddhist art tradition epitomized by the Bangasayusang, a
   half-seated contemplative maitreya whose Korean-made twin, the Miroku
   Bosatsu, was sent to Japan as a proselytizing gift and now resides in
   the Koryu-ji Temple in Japan. . Buddhism in the Three Kingdoms period
   stimulated massive temple-building projects, such as the Mireuksa
   Temple in the Baekje Kingdom and the Hwangnyongsa Temple in Silla.
   Baekje architects were famed for their skill and were instrumental in
   building the massive nine-story pagoda at Hwangnyongsa and early
   Buddhist temples in Yamato Japan such as Hoko-ji (Asuka-dera) and
   Hōryū-ji. . . . Sixth century Korean Buddhist art exhibited the
   cultural influences of China and India but began to show distinctive
   indigenous characteristics. . These indigenous characteristics can be
   seen in early Buddhist art in Japan and some early Japanese Buddhist
   sculpture is now believed to have originated in Korea, particularly
   from Baekje, or Korean artisans who immigrated to Yamato Japan. .
   Particularly, the semi-seated Maitreya form was adapted into a highly
   developed Korean style which was transmitted to Japan as evidenced by
   the Koryu-ji Miroku Bosatsu and the Chugu-ji Siddhartha statues.
   Although many historians portray Korea as a mere transmitter of
   Buddhism, the Three Kingdoms, and particularly Baekje, were
   instrumental as active agents in the introduction and formation of a
   Buddhist tradition in Japan in 538 or 552. .

Unified Silla

   The Goryeo era Gyeongcheonsa Pagoda sits on the first floor of the
   National Museum of Korea.
   The Goryeo era Gyeongcheonsa Pagoda sits on the first floor of the
   National Museum of Korea.

   During the Unified Silla period, East Asia was particularly stable with
   China and Korea both enjoying unified governments. Early Unified Silla
   art combined Silla styles and Baekje styles. Korean Buddhist art was
   also influenced by new Tang Dynasty styles as evidenced by a new
   popular Buddhist motif with full-faced Buddha sculptures. Tang China
   was the cross roads of East, Central, and South Asia and so the
   Buddhist art of this time period exhibit the so-called international
   style. State-sponsored Buddhist art flourished during this period, the
   epitome of which is the Seokguram Grotto.

Goryeo Dynasty

   The fall of the Unified Silla Dynasty and the establishment of the
   Goryeo Dynasty in 918 indicates a new period of Korean Buddhist art.
   The Goryeo kings also lavishly sponsored Buddhism and Buddhist art
   flourished, especially Buddhist paintings and illuminated sutras
   written in gold and silver ink. . The crowning achievement of this
   period is the carving of approximately 80,000 woodblocks of the
   Tripitaka Koreana which was done twice.

Joseon Dynasty

   The Joseon Dynasty actively suppressed Buddhism beginning in 1406 and
   Buddhist temples and art production subsequently decline in quality in
   quantity although beginning in 1549, Buddhist art does continue to be
   produced. .

   See also: Buddhism in Korea, Bangasayusang, Geumdong Mireuk Bosal
   Bangasang, Seokguram, Hwangnyongsa, Mireuksa, Gyeongcheonsa Pagoda,
   Tripitaka Koreana

Japan

   The Big Buddha in Kamakura (1252)
   The Big Buddha in Kamakura (1252)

   Before the introduction of Buddhism, Japan had already been the seat of
   various cultural (and artistic) influences, from the abstract linear
   decorative art of the indigenous Neolithic Jōmon from around 10500 BCE
   to 300 BCE, to the art during the Yayoi and Kofun periods, with
   developments such as Haniwa art.

   Japan, the largest Buddhist country today, discovered Buddhism in the
   6th century when monks traveled to the islands together with numerous
   scriptures and works of art. The Buddhist religion was adopted by the
   state in the following century. Being geographically at the end of the
   Silk Road, Japan was able to preserve many aspects of Buddhism at the
   very time it was disappearing in India, and being suppressed in Central
   Asia and China.
   Scroll calligraphy of Bodhidharma “Zen points directly to the human
   heart, see into your nature and become Buddha”, by Hakuin Ekaku (1686
   to 1769)
   Scroll calligraphy of Bodhidharma “Zen points directly to the human
   heart, see into your nature and become Buddha”, by Hakuin Ekaku (1686
   to 1769)

   From 710, numerous temples and monasteries were built in the capital
   city of Nara, including a five-story pagoda, the Golden Hall of the
   Horyuji, and the Kōfuku-ji temple. Countless paintings and sculpture
   were made, often under governmental sponsorship. Indian, Hellenistic,
   Chinese and Korean artistic influences blended into an original style
   characterized by realism and gracefulness. The creation of Japanese
   Buddhist art was especially rich between the 8th and 13th centuries
   during the periods of Nara, Heian and Kamakura. Japan developed an
   extremely rich figurative art for the pantheon of Buddhist deities,
   sometimes combined with Hindu and Shinto influences. This art can be
   very varied, creative and bold.

   From the 12th and 13th, a further development was Zen art, following
   the introduction of the faith by Dogen and Eisai upon their return from
   China. Zen art is mainly characterized by original paintings (such as
   sumi-e) and poetry (especially haikus), striving to express the true
   essence of the world through impressionistic and unadorned
   “non-dualistic” representations. The search for enlightenment “in the
   moment” also led to the development of other important derivative arts
   such as the Chanoyu tea ceremony or the Ikebana art of flower
   arrangement. This evolution went as far as considering almost any human
   activity as an art with a strong spiritual and aesthetic content, first
   and foremost in those activities related to combat techniques ( martial
   arts).

   Buddhism remains very active in Japan to this day. Still around 80,000
   Buddhist temples are preserved. Many of them are in wood and are
   regularly restored.

   See also: Japanese Art, Zen, Portable shrine

Tibet and Bhutan

   Yama (mid-17th?early 18th century, Tibet)
   Yama (mid-17th?early 18th century, Tibet)

   Tantric Buddhism started as a movement in eastern India around the 5th
   or the 6th century. Many of the practices of Tantric Buddhism are
   derived from Brahmanism (the usage of mantras, yoga, or the burning of
   sacrificial offerings). Tantrism became the dominant form of Buddhism
   in Tibet from the 8th century. Due to its geographical centrality in
   Asia, Tibetan Buddhist art received influence from Indian, Nepali,
   Greco-Buddhist and Chinese art.

   One of the most characteristic creations of Tibetan Buddhist art are
   the mandalas, diagrams of a “divine temple” made of a circle enclosing
   a square, the purpose of which is to help Buddhist worshipers focus
   their attention through meditation and follow the path to the central
   image of the Buddha. Artistically, Buddhist Gupta art and Hindu art
   tend to be the two strongest inspirations of Tibetan art.

   See also: Tibetan art, Buddha Dordenma statue

Vietnam

   Chinese influence was predominant in the north of Vietnam (Tonkin)
   between the 1st and 9th centuries, and Confucianism and Mahayana
   Buddhism were prevalent. Overall, the art of Vietnam has been strongly
   influenced by Chinese Buddhist art.

   In the south, the kingdom of Champa has a strongly Indianized art, just
   as neighboring Cambodia. Many of its statues were characterized by rich
   body adornments. The capital of the kingdom of Champa was annexed by
   Vietnam in 1471, and it totally collapsed in the 1720s.

Southern Buddhist art

   During the 1st century CE, the trade on the overland Silk Road tended
   to be restricted by the rise of the Parthian empire in the Middle East,
   an unvanquished enemy of Rome, just as Romans were becoming extremely
   wealthy and their demand for Asian luxury was rising. This demand
   revived the sea connections between the Mediterranean Sea and China,
   with India as the intermediary of choice. From that time, through trade
   connections, commercial settlements, and even political interventions,
   India started to strongly influence Southeast Asian countries. Trade
   routes linked India with southern Burma, central and southern Siam,
   lower Cambodia and southern Vietnam, and numerous urbanized coastal
   settlements were established there.
   A Cambodian Buddha, 14th century
   A Cambodian Buddha, 14th century

   For more than a thousand years, Indian influence was therefore the
   major factor that brought a certain level of cultural unity to the
   various countries of the region. The Pali and Sanskrit languages and
   the Indian script, together with Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism,
   Brahmanism and Hinduism, were transmitted from direct contact and
   through sacred texts and Indian literature such as the Ramayana and the
   Mahabharata. This expansion provided the artistic context for the
   development of Buddhist art in these countries, which then developed
   characteristics of their own.

   Between the 1st and 8th centuries, several kingdoms competed for
   influence in the region (particularly the Cambodian Funan then the
   Burmese Mon kingdoms) contributing various artistic characteristics,
   mainly derived from the Indian Gupta style. Combined with a pervading
   Hindu influence, Buddhist images, votive tablets and Sanskrit
   inscriptions are found throughout the area.

   From the 9th to the 13th centuries, Southeast Asia had very powerful
   empires and became extremely active in Buddhist architectural and
   artistic creation. The Sri Vijaya Empire to the south and the Khmer
   Empire to the north competed for influence, but both were adherents of
   Mahayana Buddhism, and their art expressed the rich Mahayana pantheon
   of the Bodhisattvas. The Theravada Buddhism of the Pali canon was
   introduced to the region around the 13th century from Sri Lanka, and
   was adopted by the newly founded ethnic Thai kingdom of Sukhothai.
   Since in Theravada Buddhism only monks can reach Nirvana, the
   construction of temple complexes plays a particularly important role in
   the artistic expression of Southeast Asia from that time.

   From the 14th century, the main factor was the spread of Islam to the
   maritime areas of Southeast Asia, overrunning Malaysia, Indonesia, and
   most of the islands as far as the Philippines. In the continental
   areas, Theravada Buddhism continued to expand into Burma, Laos and
   Cambodia.

Myanmar

   A neighbour of India, Myanmar was naturally strongly influenced by the
   eastern part of Indian territory. The Mon of southern Burma are said to
   have been converted to Buddhism around 200 BCE under the proselytizing
   of the Indian king Ashoka, before the schism between Mahayana and
   Hinayana Buddhism.

   Early Buddhist temples are found, such as Beikthano in central Myanmar,
   with dates between the 1st and the 5th centuries. The Buddhist art of
   the Mons was especially influenced by the Indian art of the Gupta and
   post-Gupta periods, and their mannerist style spread widely in
   Southeast Asia following the expansion of the Mon Empire between the
   5th and 8th centuries.

   Later, thousands of Buddhist temples were built at Pagan, the capital,
   between the 11th and 13th centuries, and around 2,000 of them are still
   standing. Beautiful jeweled statues of the Buddha are remaining from
   that period. Creation managed to continue despite the seizure of the
   city by the Mongols in 1287.

Cambodia

   Bodhisattva Lokesvara, Cambodia 12th century.
   Bodhisattva Lokesvara, Cambodia 12th century.

   Cambodia was the centre of the Funan kingdom, which expanded into Burma
   and as far south as Malaysia between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE. Its
   influence seems to have been essentially political, most of the
   cultural influence coming directly from India.

   Later, from the 9th to 13th centuries, the Mahayana Buddhist and Hindu
   Khmer Empire dominated vast parts of the Southeast Asian peninsula, and
   its influence was foremost in the development of Buddhist art in the
   region. Under the Khmer, more than 900 temples were built in Cambodia
   and in neighboring Thailand.

   Angkor was at the centre of this development, with a Buddhist temple
   complex and urban organization able to support around 1 million urban
   dwellers. A great deal of Cambodian Buddhist sculpture is preserved at
   Angkor; however, organized looting has had a heavy impact on many sites
   around the country.

   Often, Khmer art manages to express intense spirituality through
   divinely beaming expressions, in spite of spare features and slender
   lines.

Thailand

   From the 1st to the 7th centuries, Buddhist art in Thailand was first
   influenced by direct contact with Indian traders and the expansion of
   the Mon kingdom, leading to the creation of Hindu and Buddhist art
   inspired from the Gupta tradition, with numerous monumental statues of
   great virtuosity.

   From the 9th century, the various schools of Thai art then became
   strongly influenced by Cambodian Khmer art in the north and Sri Vijaya
   art in the south, both of Mahayana faith. Up to the end of that period,
   Buddhist art is characterized by a clear fluidness in the expression,
   and the subject matter is characteristic of the Mahayana pantheon with
   multiple creations of Bodhisattvas.

   From the 13th century, Theravada Buddhism was introduced from Sri Lanka
   around the same time as the ethnic Thai kingdom of Sukhothai was
   established. The new faith inspired highly stylized images in Thai
   Buddhism, with sometimes very geometrical and almost abstract figures.

   During the Ayutthaya period (14th-18th centuries), the Buddha came to
   be represented in a more stylistic manner with sumptuous garments and
   jeweled ornamentations. Many Thai sculptures or temples tended to be
   gilded, and on occasion enriched with inlays.

   See also: Thai art

Indonesia

   A Buddha in Borobudur.
   A Buddha in Borobudur.

   Like the rest of Southeast Asia, Indonesia seems to have been most
   strongly influenced by India from the 1st century CE. The islands of
   Sumatra and Java in western Indonesia were the seat of the empire of
   Sri Vijaya (8th-13th century CE), which came to dominate most of the
   area around the Southeast Asian peninsula through maritime power. The
   Sri Vijayan Empire had adopted Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, under a
   line of rulers named the Sailendras. Sri Vijaya spread Mahayana
   Buddhist art during its expansion into the Southeast Asian peninsula.
   Numerous statues of Mahayana Bodhisattvas from this period are
   characterized by a very strong refinement and technical sophistication,
   and are found throughout the region.
   A detailed carved relief stone from Borobudur.
   A detailed carved relief stone from Borobudur.
   The statue of Prajñāpāramitā from Singhasari, East Java.
   The statue of Prajñāpāramitā from Singhasari, East Java.

   Extremely rich and refined architectural remains are can be found in
   Java and Sumatra. The most magnificence is the temple of Borobudur (the
   largest Buddhist structure in the world, built from around 780-850 AD).
   This temple modeled after Buddhist concept of universe, the Mandala
   which counts 505 images of the seated Buddha and unique bell-shaped
   stupa that contains the statue of Buddha. Borobudur is adorned with
   long series of bas-reliefs narrated the holy Buddhist scriptures. The
   oldest Buddhist structure in Indonesia probably is the Batu Jaya stupas
   at Karawang, West Java, dated from around 4th century AD. This temple
   is some plastered brick stupas. However Buddhist art in Indonesia reach
   the golden era during the Sailendra dynasty rule in Java. The
   bas-reliefs and statues of Boddhisatva, Tara, and Kinnara found in
   Kalasan, Sewu, Sari, and Plaosan temple is very graceful with serene
   expression, While Mendut temple near Borobudur, houses the giant statue
   of Buddha, Avalokitesvara, and Vajrapani.

   In Sumatra Sri Vijaya probably built the temple of Muara Takus, and
   Muaro Jambi. The most beautiful classical Javanese art is the serene
   and delicate statue of Prajnaparamita (the collection of National
   Museum Jakarta) the goddes of transcendental wisdom from Singhasari.
   The Indonesian Buddhist Empire of Sri Vijaya declined due to conflicts
   with the Chola rulers of India, then followed by Majapahit empire,
   before being destabilized by the Islamic expansion from the 13th
   century.

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