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Carolus Linnaeus

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Human Scientists

   CAPTION: Carolus Linnaeus (Carl von Linné)

   Carl von Linné, Alexander Roslin, 1775. Currently owned by and hanging
   at the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
   Carl von Linné, Alexander Roslin, 1775. Currently owned by and hanging
   at the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
   Born May 23, 1707
   Råshult, Älmhult, Sweden
   Died January 10, 1778
   Uppsala, Sweden
   Residence Sweden
   Nationality Swedish
   Field Zoology, medicine, botany
   Alma Mater Uppsala University
   University of Harderwijk
   Known for Taxonomy
   Ecology
   Botany
   Religion Church of Sweden
   Linnaeus adopted the name Carl von Linné after his 1761 ennoblement
   awarded him the title von. He is the father of Carolus Linnaeus the
   Younger.

   Carolus Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as Carl von Linné ,
   ( May 23, 1707 – January 10, 1778), was a Swedish botanist, physician
   and zoologist who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of
   nomenclature. He is known as the " father of modern taxonomy." He is
   also considered one of the fathers of modern ecology (see History of
   ecology).

   He was the most renowned botanist of his time, and also noted for his
   fine language skills. The French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau sent
   him the message: "Tell him I know no greater man on earth." ; the
   German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote: "With the exception of
   Shakespeare and Spinoza, I know no one among the no longer living who
   has influenced me more strongly." ; Swedish author August Strindberg
   wrote: "Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become a
   naturalist".

Name

   The name of this botanist comes in different variants: 'Carl Linnaeus',
   'Carolus Linnaeus' and 'Carl von Linné', sometimes just 'Carl Linné'.
   There is often confusion about his real Swedish name, as opposed to the
   Latinized form 'Carolus Linnaeus' he used most when he published his
   scientific works in Latin.

   In Linnaeus' time, most Swedes had no surnames. Linnaeus' grandfather
   was named Ingemar Bengtsson (son of Bengt), according to Scandinavian
   tradition. Linnaeus' father was known as Nils Ingemarsson (son of
   Ingemar). Only for registration purposes, for example when
   matriculating at a university, one needed a surname. In the academic
   world, Latin was the language of choice, so when Linnaeus' father went
   to the University of Lund, he coined himself a Latin surname: Linnaeus,
   referring to a large linden (lime) tree, the warden tree of the family
   property Linnagård (linn being an archaic form of Swedish lind, the
   linden). Nils Ingemarsson Linnaeus gave his son the name Carl. So the
   Swedish name of the boy was Carl Linnaeus.

   When Carl Linnaeus enrolled as student at the University of Lund, he
   was registered as 'Carolus Linnaeus'. This Latinized form was the name
   he used when he published his works in Latin. After he was ennobled, in
   1761, he took the name Carl von Linné. 'Linné' is thus a shortened
   version of 'Linnaeus', 'von' is added to signify his ennoblement.
   Signature of Carolus Linnaeus (Carl v. Linné).
   Enlarge
   Signature of Carolus Linnaeus (Carl v. Linné).

   When referring to or citing the author Linnaeus, it is appropriate to
   use 'Carl Linnaeus', 'Carolus Linnaeus' or just 'Linnaeus'. 'Carl von
   Linné' seems to be less suitable, especially for the works he published
   before 1762. On the title page of the second edition of Species
   plantarum (1762) the author's name is still printed as 'Carolus
   Linnaeus' (or rather the genitive form 'Caroli Linnaei') but from then
   on, his name is quite consistently printed as 'Carolus a Linne' or
   'Carl von Linné'. Stafleu uses 'Carl Linnaeus' as the author's name for
   all his works.

   The adjective of his name is usually 'Linnaean', but the prestigious
   Linnean Society of London has a journal The Linnean, awards the Linnean
   Medal, and so on.

Biography

Early life

   Carl Linnaeus was born on the farm Råshult, located in Älmhult
   Municipality, in the province of Småland in southern Sweden, on May 23,
   1707. He was groomed as a youth to be a churchman, walking in his
   fathers path, but showed little enthusiasm for it. In 1717 he was sent
   to the primary school at the city Växjö, and in 1724 he passed to the
   gymnasium there, but with meager results in the clerical faculty.
   Instead his interest in botany made an impression on a local physician,
   realizing there might be a bright future in the field for Carl, and on
   his recommendation Carl's father sent Carl to study at the closest
   university, Lund University. Carl studied in Lund and tried to make
   something of the botanical garden there, but because it had been
   neglected, it was suggested to him that he would have better prospects
   at the University of Uppsala; Carl left for Uppsala within a year.

   His first time in Uppsala was financially rough, until he was
   acquainted with the renowned scientist Olof Celsius in 1729. Celsius,
   impressed with Linnaeus's knowledge and botanical collections, offered
   him board and lodging.

   During this period, he came upon a work which ultimately led to the
   establishment of his artificial system of plant classification. This
   was a review of Sebastien Vaillant's Sermo de Structura Florum (Leiden,
   1718), a thin quarto in French and Latin. Through this, he became
   convinced of the importance of the stamens and pistils, on which he in
   1729 wrote a short treatise on the sexes of plants. It caught the
   attention of Olof Rudbeck the Younger (1660-1740), the professor of
   botany in the university, who subsequently appointed him his adjunct.
   In 1730, Carl began giving lectures in the faculty.

   In 1732 the Academy of Sciences at Uppsala financed Linnaeus on an
   expedition to Lapland in northernmost Sweden, then virtually unknown.
   The result of this was first The Florula Lapponica (the first work to
   use the Sexual System) and later the Flora Lapponica published in 1737.
   His journey to sub-Arctic Lapland is notable for exotic and adventurous
   episodes.

   He married Sara Elisabeth Morea and had seven children, Carolus,
   Elisabeth, Sara Magdalena, Lovisa, Sara Christina, Johannes, Sophia.

Travels and research

   Carl Linnaeus dressed in Lapp costume. Portraited while in Netherlands,
   by Martin Hoffman in Hartecamp, 1737
   Enlarge
   Carl Linnaeus dressed in Lapp costume. Portraited while in Netherlands,
   by Martin Hoffman in Hartecamp, 1737

   In 1735 Linnaeus moved to the Netherlands, where he was to spend the
   next three years. Here he earned his one and only academic degree, it
   being in Medicine. He met with botanist Jan Frederik Gronovius and
   showed him a draft of his work on taxonomy, the Systema Naturae. This
   was published in the Netherlands the same year, as an eleven page work.

   Linnaeus stayed put in the Netherlands for 12 months, until he in 1736
   made a journey to London, where he visited the Oxford University and
   met several highly regarded people, such as the physicist Hans Sloane,
   the botanic Philip Miller and the professor of botany J. J. Dillenius.
   The journey lasted a few months, after which he returned to Amsterdam,
   and continued the printing of his Genera Plantarum, the starting point
   of his taxonomy. In 1738, the work was done, and he started his journey
   back home. On his way he stayed in Leiden for a year, during which he
   had his Classes Plantarum printed; then travelling to Paris, before
   setting sail for Stockholm.

   Arriving in Stockholm, he settled as a physicist in September that
   year. In 1739 Linnaeus married Sara Morea in Stockholm, and in the same
   year he was one of the founders of the Royal Swedish Academy of
   Sciences. In 1741 he ascended to the chair of medicine at Uppsala and
   moved there. The position was soon exchanged for the chair of botany.

   Throughout the 1740s he conducted numerous field trips to many
   locations in Sweden to classify plants and animals: in 1741 to the
   Stora Alvaret on Öland and also to Gotland; in 1746 to Västergötland;
   and in 1749 to Scania including visits to the Kullaberg. The reports of
   each travel were published in the Swedish language to be accessible for
   the general public. Apart from containing many important reports of
   common life of that time, they have in recent years been appreciated
   for its fine treatment of the Swedish language, indeed putting Linnaeus
   as one of the foremost Swedish writers of the 18th century.
   The Linnaean garden has been maintained and can still be visited in
   Uppsala today
   Enlarge
   The Linnaean garden has been maintained and can still be visited in
   Uppsala today

   When not on travels, Linnaeus worked on his classifications, extending
   them to the kingdom of animals and the kingdom of minerals. The last
   may seem somewhat odd, but the theory of evolution was still a long
   time away. Linnaeus was only attempting a convenient way of
   categorizing the elements of the natural world.

   The Swedish king, Adolf Fredrik, ennobled Linnaeus in 1757, and after
   the privy council had confirmed the ennoblement Linnaeus took the
   surname von Linné, later often signing just Carl Linné.

Last years

   Tombstone of father and son Linnaeus in Uppsala Cathedral
   Enlarge
   Tombstone of father and son Linnaeus in Uppsala Cathedral

   After his ennoblement, he continued teaching and writing. His
   reputation had spread over the world, and he corresponded with many
   different people. For example, Catherine II of Russia sent him seeds
   from her country.

   Of Linnaeus' children, five reached adult age: four girls and one boy.
   Only the boy, Carolus Linnaeus the Younger, was allowed to study. He
   did not have the same passion as his father, but managed to make a
   reputation in botany. At the father's death, the son succeeded him as
   professor; however, he died only five years later. The son is commonly
   referred to as filius (abbreviated "L. f.") to distinguish him from his
   famous father.

   Linnaeus last years were troubled by weak health, and he was troubled
   by gout and tooth aches. A stroke in 1774 greatly weakened him, and two
   years later he suffered another, losing the use of his right side. He
   died on January 1778 in Uppsala, during a ceremony in the Uppsala
   Cathedral. He was buried in the cathedral.

Linnaean taxonomy

   Taxonomists, in almost any biological field, have heard of Carolus
   Linnaeus. His prime contribution was to establish conventions for the
   naming of living organisms that became universally accepted in the
   scientific world (binomial names, scientific names): the work of
   Linnaeus represents the starting point of binomial nomenclature. In
   addition Linnaeus developed, during the great 18th century expansion of
   natural history knowledge, what became known as the Linnaean taxonomy;
   the system of scientific classification now widely used in the
   biological sciences.

   The Linnaean system classified nature within a hierarchy, starting with
   three kingdoms. Kingdoms were divided into Classes and they, in turn,
   into Orders, which were divided into Genera (singular: genus), which
   were divided into Species (singular: species). Below the rank of
   species he sometimes recognized taxa of a lower (unnamed) rank (for
   plants these are now called "varieties").

   His groupings were based upon shared physical characteristics. Although
   only his groupings for animals remain to this day, and the groupings
   themselves have been significantly changed since Linnaeus' conception,
   as well as the principles behind them, he is credited with establishing
   the idea of a hierarchical structure of classification which is based
   upon observable characteristics. While the underlying details
   concerning what are considered to be scientifically valid 'observable
   characteristics' has changed with expanding knowledge (for example, DNA
   sequencing, unavailable in Linnaeus' time, has proven to be a tool of
   considerable utility for classifying living organisms and establishing
   their relationships to each other), the fundamental principle remains
   sound.

Mankind

   Linnaeus was also a pioneer in defining the now discredited concept of
   "race" as applied to humans. Within Homo sapiens he proposed four taxa
   of a lower (unnamed) rank. These categories are, Americanus, Asiaticus,
   Africanus, and Europeanus. They were based on place of origin at first,
   and later skin colour. Each race had certain characteristics that were
   endemic to individuals belonging to it. Native Americans were reddish,
   stubborn, and angered easily. Africans were black, relaxed and
   negligent. Asians were sallow, avaricious, and easily distracted.
   Europeans were white, gentle, and inventive. Linnaeus's races were
   clearly skewed in favour of Europeans. Over time, this classification
   led to a racial hierarchy, in which Europeans were at the top. Members
   of many European countries use the classification scheme to validate
   their conquering or subjugation of members of the "lower" races. In
   particular the invented concept of race was used to enforce the
   inhumane institution of slavery, particularly in the new world European
   colonies.

   In addition, in Amoenitates academicae (1763), he defined Homo
   anthropomorpha as a catch-all race for a variety of human-like
   mythological creatures, including the troglodyte, satyr, hydra, and
   phoenix. He claimed that not only did these creatures actually exist,
   but were in reality inaccurate descriptions of real-world ape-like
   creatures.

   He also, in Systema Naturæ, defined Homo ferus as "four-footed, mute,
   hairy." It included the subraces Juvenis lupinus hessensis (wolf-boys),
   whom he thought were raised by animals, and Juvenis hannoveranus (
   Peter of Hanover) and Puella campanica (Wild-girl of Champaigne). He
   likewise defined Homo monstrosous as agile and fainthearted, and
   included in this race the Patagonian giant, the dwarf of the Alps, and
   the monorchid Hottentot.
    1. Africanus negreus
    2. Americanus rubenscens
    3. Asiaticus fucus
    4. Europeus albescens
    5. Feral
    6. Monstrosous
    7. Anthropomorpha

     * No Classification


   Linnaeus' scientifical research took science on a path that diverged
   from what had been taught by religious authorities. The Lutheran
   Archbishop of Uppsala had accused him of "impiety." In a letter to
   Johann Georg Gmelin dated February 25, 1747, Linnaeus wrote:
     * Original Latin

   Non placet, quod Hominem inter ant[h]ropomorpha collocaverim, sed homo
   noscit se ipsum. Removeamus vocabula. Mihi perinde erit, quo nomine
   utamur. Sed quaero a Te et Toto orbe differentiam genericam inter
   hominem et Simiam, quae ex principiis Historiae naturalis. Ego
   certissime nullam novi. Utinam aliquis mihi unicam diceret! Si vocassem
   hominem simiam vel vice versa omnes in me conjecissem theologos.
   Debuissem forte ex lege artis.
     * English Translation

   It is not pleasing to me that I must place humans among the primates,
   but man is intimately familiar with himself. Let's not quibble over
   words. It will be the same to me whatever name is applied. But I
   desperately seek from you and from the whole world a general difference
   between men and simians from the principles of Natural History. I
   certainly know of none. If only someone might tell me one! If I called
   man a simian or vice versa I would bring together all the theologians
   against me. Perhaps I ought to, in accordance with the law of the
   discipline [of Natural History].

Students

   Carolus imbued his students with his own thoroughness in an atmosphere
   of enthusiasm, trained them to close and accurate observation, and then
   sent them to various parts of the globe. Some of the notable students
   include Pehr Kalm, in North America 1748–1751; Daniel Solander, with
   James Cook's to the Pacific in 1768, and in 1771 travelled to Iceland,
   the Faroes and Orkney; Fredric Hasselquist, who visited Palestine and
   parts of Asia Minor; and Carl Peter Thunberg to Japan, South Africa,
   Java, and Sri Lanka.

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