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Charles I of England

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: British History
1500-1750; Monarchs of Great Britain

                       Charles I
   King of England, Scotland and Ireland (more...)
   Anthony van Dyck, 1636
   Anthony van Dyck, 1636
      Reign    27 March 1625 — 30 January 1649
   Coronation  2 February 1626
   Predecessor James I of England
    Successor  Charles II de jure
               Oliver Cromwell de facto
     Consort   Henrietta Maria of France
                         Issue
   Charles II
   Mary, Princess Royal
   James II and VII
   Elizabeth of England
   Anne of England
   Henry, Duke of Gloucester
   Henrietta Anne of England
                        Detail
   Titles
   HM The King
   The Prince of Wales
   The Duke of York
   The Duke of Albany
   The Prince Charles
   Royal house House of Stuart
     Father    James I of England
     Mother    Anne of Denmark
      Born     19 November 1600
               Dunfermline, Scotland
    Baptised   23 December 1600
               Dunfermline, Scotland
      Died     30 January 1649 (aged 48)
               Whitehall, England
     Burial    7 February 1649
               St George's, England

   Charles I ( 19 November 1600 – 30 January 1649) was King of England,
   King of Scotland, and King of Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his
   execution in 1649. He famously engaged in a struggle for power with the
   Parliament of England. As he was an advocate of the Divine Right of
   Kings, many in England feared that he was attempting to gain absolute
   power. There was widespread opposition to many of his actions,
   especially the levying of taxes without Parliament's consent.

   Religious conflicts permeated Charles' reign. He married a Catholic
   princess, Henrietta Maria, over the objections of Parliament and public
   opinion. Charles further allied himself with controversial religious
   figures, including the ecclesiastic Richard Montagu, and William Laud,
   whom Charles appointed Archbishop of Canterbury. Laud did not bring
   changes to the liturgy of the Church of England, but he did endorse a
   stricter enforcement of the English Prayerbook, which included
   ceremonies that many Englishmen chose to omit. Many of Charles'
   subjects felt this brought the Church of England too close to Roman
   Catholicism. Charles' later attempts to force religious reforms upon
   Scotland led to the Bishops' Wars that weakened England and helped
   precipitate his downfall.

   The last years of Charles' reign were marked by the English Civil War,
   in which he was opposed by the forces of Parliament—who challenged his
   attempts to augment his own power—and by Puritans, who were hostile to
   his religious policies and apparent Catholic sympathy. The first Civil
   War (1642 - 1645) ended in defeat for Charles, after which the
   parliamentarians expected him to accept their demands for a
   constitutional monarchy. Instead, he remained defiant, provoking a
   second Civil War (1648 - 1649). This was considered unacceptable, and
   Charles was subsequently tried, convicted, and executed for high
   treason. The monarchy was then abolished and a republic called the
   Commonwealth of England was declared. Charles' son, Charles II, became
   King after restoring the monarchy in 1660.

   Charles is also the only person to be canonized by the Church of
   England since the English Reformation.

Early life

   The second son of James VI, King of Scots and Anne of Denmark, Charles
   was born at Dunfermline Palace, Fife, on 19 November 1600. He was an
   underdeveloped child (he is listed in the Guinness Book of Records as
   the nation's shortest king) who was still unable to walk or talk at the
   age of three. When Elizabeth I died in March 1603 and James VI became
   King of England as James I, Charles was originally left in Scotland in
   the care of nurses and servants because it was feared that the journey
   would damage his fragile health. He did make the journey in July 1604
   and was subsequently placed under the charge of Alletta (Hogenhove)
   Carey, the Dutch-born wife of courtier Sir Robert Carey, who taught him
   how to walk and talk and insisted that he wear boots made of Spanish
   leather and brass to help strengthen his weak ankles. As an adult
   Charles was 5 feet 4 inches (162 cm) tall.

   Charles was not as well-regarded as his elder brother, Henry, Prince of
   Wales; Charles himself adored Henry and tried to emulate him. In 1605,
   as was then customary in the case of the Sovereign's second son, he was
   created Duke of York in England. Two years before, in 1603, he was
   created Duke of Albany in Scotland. When his elder brother died at the
   age of 18 of typhoid in 1612, two weeks before Charles's 12th birthday,
   Charles became heir apparent and was subsequently created the Prince of
   Wales and Earl of Chester in November 1616. His sister Elizabeth
   married in 1613 to Frederick V, Elector Palatine and moved to
   Heidelberg.

   The new Prince of Wales was greatly influenced by his father's
   favourite courtier, George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, who took
   him on an expedition to Spain in 1623 to look for a suitable bride, and
   settled on the daughter of the Spanish King Philip III, Infanta Maria
   Anna of Spain. No marriage occurred, however, as the Spanish demanded
   the Prince of Wales' conversion to Roman Catholicism. Upon their return
   in October, both the Prince of Wales and the Duke of Buckingham
   demanded that James I declare war on Spain.
            British Royalty
            House of Stuart
               Charles I
      Charles II
      James II & VII
       Henry, Duke of Gloucester
       Mary, Princess Royal
       Henrietta, Duchess of Orléans

   With the encouragement of his Protestant advisors, James summoned
   Parliament so that he could request subsidies for his war effort. James
   also requested that Parliament sanction the marriage between the Prince
   of Wales and Princess Henrietta Maria of France, whom Charles met in
   Paris whilst en route to Spain. It was a good match since she was a
   sister of Louis XIII (their father, Henry IV, had died during her
   childhood). Parliament agreed to the marriage, but was extremely
   critical of the prior attempt to arrange a marital alliance with Spain.
   James was growing senile and as a result was finding it extremely
   difficult to control Parliament—the same problem would later haunt
   Charles during his reign. During the last year of his reign, actual
   power was held not by him but by his eldest son and the Duke of
   Buckingham.

Early reign

   Charles ascended the throne on 27 March 1625 and on 13 June of that
   year was married to Henrietta Maria, nine years his junior, by proxy.
   His first Parliament, which he opened in May, was opposed to his
   marriage to Henrietta Maria, a Roman Catholic, because it feared that
   Charles would lift restrictions on Roman Catholics and undermine the
   official establishment of Protestantism. Although he agreed with
   Parliament that he would not relax restrictions relating to recusants,
   he promised to do exactly that in a secret marriage treaty with Louis
   XIII. The couple were married on 13 June 1625, in Canterbury. Charles
   was crowned on 2 February 1626 at Westminster Abbey, but without his
   wife at his side due to the controversy. They had nine children, with
   three sons and three daughters surviving infancy.
   Sir Anthony Van Dyck: Charles I painted around 1635
   Sir Anthony Van Dyck: Charles I painted around 1635

   Distrust of Charles' religious policies was increased by the
   controversy surrounding the ecclesiastic Richard Montagu. In a
   pamphlet, Montagu argued against the teachings of John Calvin,
   immediately bringing himself into disrepute amongst the Puritans. A
   Puritan member of the House of Commons, John Pym, attacked Montagu's
   pamphlet during debate, prompting Montagu to request the aid of Charles
   I in a pamphlet entitled " Appello Caesarem" (Latin "I appeal to
   Caesar", a reference to an appeal against Jewish persecution made by
   Saint Paul the Apostle). Charles I offered the cleric his protection,
   leading many Puritans to take a hostile view towards him.

   Charles' primary concern during his early reign was foreign policy.
   Frederick V, Elector Palatine, his sister Elizabeth's husband, had lost
   his hereditary lands in the Palatinate to the Holy Roman Emperor
   Ferdinand II, leading to the Thirty Years' War, originally only a war
   to keep the Catholic Habsburgs hegemonic as the elected Kings of
   Bohemia, which spiralled out of control into a civil and confessional
   war between Protestants and Catholics in Europe. Charles was committed
   to help his brother-in-law regain the Palatinate by waging a war with
   the Catholic Spanish King Philip IV, whom he hoped he could force to
   intercede with the Emperor on his behalf.

   Parliament preferred an inexpensive naval attack on Spanish colonies in
   the New World, hoping that the capture of the Spanish treasure fleets
   could finance the war. Charles, however, preferred more aggressive (and
   more expensive) action on the Continent. Parliament only voted to grant
   a subsidy of £140,000; an insufficient sum for Charles. Moreover, the
   House of Commons agreed to allow the King to collect tonnage and
   poundage (two varieties of customs duties), but only for a period of
   one year, although previous Sovereigns since 1414 had been granted the
   right for life. In this manner, the House of Commons hoped to keep a
   check on Charles's power by forcing him to seek the renewal of the
   grant each year.

   Charles's allies in the House of Lords, led by the Duke of Buckingham,
   refused to pass the bill. Although no Parliamentary authority for the
   levy of tonnage and poundage could be obtained, Charles continued to
   collect the duties anyway.

Tyranny or personal rule?

   In January 1629, Charles opened the second session of the Parliament
   which had been prorogued in June 1628. Charles saw a conspiracy at
   work, due to the recent assassination of Buckingham, calling his
   commons 'seditious'. Members of the House of Commons began to voice
   their opposition in light of the Rolle case. Rolle was an MP who had
   his goods confiscated for not paying tonnage and poundage. This was
   seen by many MPs as a breach of the Petition of Right, who argued that
   the freedom from arrest privilege extended to goods. When he requested
   a parliamentary adjournment in March, members held the Speaker, John
   Finch, down in his chair whilst three resolutions against Charles were
   read aloud. The last of these resolutions declared that anyone who paid
   tonnage or poundage not authorised by Parliament would "be reputed a
   betrayer of the liberties of England, and an enemy to the same". Though
   the resolution was not formally passed, many members declared their
   approval. The fact that a number of MPs had to be detained in
   Parliament is relevant in understanding that there was no universal
   opposition towards the King. Afterwards, when the Commons passed
   further measures displeasing to Charles, he dissolved parliament.

   Charles resolved not to be forced to rely on Parliament for further
   monetary aid. Immediately, he made peace with France and Spain. The
   following eleven years, during which Charles ruled without a
   Parliament, have been known as both the Eleven Years Tyranny or simply
   as the Personal Rule. (Charles' rule without Parliament constituted a
   valid but nevertheless exceptional exercise of the royal prerogative.
   In former times such rule would have been considered just but by the
   middle of the 17th century it was held by many to be an exercise of
   absolute power).
   Sir Anthony van Dyck, Charles I's court painter, created the famous
   "Charles I, King of England, from Three Angles", commonly known as the
   "Triple Portrait". This oil painting, of around 1636, was created in
   order that the Italian sculptor, Bernini, could create a marble bust of
   Charles
   Sir Anthony van Dyck, Charles I's court painter, created the famous
   "Charles I, King of England, from Three Angles", commonly known as the
   "Triple Portrait". This oil painting, of around 1636, was created in
   order that the Italian sculptor, Bernini, could create a marble bust of
   Charles

   Even without Parliament Charles still had to acquire funds in order to
   maintain his treasury. Thus, relying on an all but forgotten feudal
   statute called 'The Distraint of Knighthood' passed in 1278, requiring
   anyone who earned £40 or more each year to present himself at the
   King's coronation so that he may join the royal army as a knight,
   Charles fined all individuals who failed to attend his coronation in
   1626. He also reintroduced the obsolete feudal tax known as ship money
   which was even more unpopular. A writ issued in 1634 ordered the
   collection of ship money in peacetime, notwithstanding statutes of
   Edward I and Edward III that had prohibited the levying of such a tax
   except during wars. This first writ of 1634, however, did not encourage
   much opposition on legal grounds, but a second writ of 1635 did.
   Charles' third writ demanding ship money, issued in 1636, made it clear
   that the ancient prohibition on collecting ship money during peacetime
   had been swept away. Many attempted to resist payment, but Charles'
   judges, whose tenure depended on his "good pleasure," declared that the
   tax was within the King's prerogative. This action of demanding ship
   money to be raised in peacetime was a major cause of concern among the
   ruling class; however, it must be noted that it was the attempted
   enforcement of the Anglican and increasingly Arminian styled prayer
   book under Laud that precipitated the rebellion in Scotland, which
   ended Personal Rule in 1640.

Religious conflicts

   Charles wished to move the Church of England away from Calvinism in a
   more traditional and sacramental direction. This goal was shared by his
   main political adviser, Archbishop William Laud. Laud was appointed by
   Charles as the Archbishop of Canterbury in 1633 and started a series of
   unpopular reforms in the Church to make it more ceremonial. Laud
   attempted to ensure religious uniformity by dismissing non-conformist
   clergymen and closing Puritan organisations. This was actively hostile
   to the Reformist tendencies of many of his English and Scottish
   subjects. His policy was obnoxious to Calvinist theology, and insisted
   that the Church of England's liturgy be celebrated with all of the
   ceremony and vestments called for by the Book of Common Prayer. Laud
   was also an advocate of Arminian theology, a view whose emphasis on the
   ability to reject salvation was viewed as heretical and virtually
   "Catholic" by strict Calvinists.

   To punish those who refused to accept his reforms, Laud used the two
   most feared and most arbitrary courts in the land, the Court of High
   Commission and the Court of Star Chamber. The former could compel
   individuals to provide self-incriminating testimony, whilst the latter
   could inflict any punishment whatsoever (including torture), with the
   sole exception of death.

   The lawlessness of the Court of Star Chamber under Charles' I far
   exceeded that under any of his predecessors. Under Charles' reign,
   defendants were regularly hauled before the Court without indictment,
   due process of the law, right to confront witnesses, and their
   testimonies were routinely extracted by the King and his courtiers
   through extensive torture.

   The first years of the Personal Rule were marked by peace in England,
   to some extent due to tighter central control. Several individuals
   opposed Charles' taxes and Laud's policies, however the overall trend
   of the early Personal Rule period is one of peace. When, however,
   Charles attempted to impose his religious policies in Scotland he faced
   numerous difficulties. The King ordered the use of a new Prayer Book
   modelled on the English Book of Common Prayer, which, although
   supported by the Scottish Bishops, was resisted by many Presbyterian
   Scots, who saw the new Prayer Book as a vehicle for introducing
   Anglicanism to Scotland. When the General Assembly of the Church of
   Scotland abolished Episcopalian government (that is, governance of the
   Church by Bishops) in 1638, replacing it with Presbyterian government
   (that is, governance by Elders and Deacons), Charles sought to put down
   what he saw as a rebellion against his authority.

   In 1639, when the First Bishops' War broke out, Charles sought to
   collect taxes from his subjects, who refused to yield any further.
   Charles's war ended in a humiliating truce in June of the same year. In
   the Pacification of Berwick, Charles agreed to grant his Scottish
   subjects civil and ecclesiastical freedoms.

   Charles' military failure in the First Bishops' War in turn caused a
   financial and military crisis for Charles, which caused the end of
   Personal Rule. Due to his financial weakness, Charles was forced to
   call Parliament into session by 1640 in an attempt to raise funds.
   While the ruling class grievances with the changes to government and
   finance during the Personal Rule period were a contributing factor in
   the Scottish Rebellion, it was mainly due to the key issue of religion
   that Charles was forced to confront the ruling class in Parliament for
   the first time in eleven years. In essence, it was Charles' and Laud's
   confrontational religious modifications that ended what the Whig
   historians refer to as "The Eleven Years of Tyranny".

The "Short" and "Long" Parliaments

   Disputes regarding the interpretation of the peace treaty between
   Charles and the Church of Scotland led to further conflict. To subdue
   the Scots, Charles needed more money; therefore, he took the fateful
   step of recalling Parliament in April 1640. Although Charles offered to
   repeal ship money, and the House of Commons agreed to allow Charles to
   raise the funds for war, an impasse was reached when Parliament
   demanded the discussion of various abuses of power during the Personal
   Rule. As both sides refused to give ground on this matter, Parliament
   was dissolved in May 1640, less than a month after it assembled; thus,
   the Parliament became known as the " Short Parliament".

   In the meantime, Charles attempted to defeat the Scots, but failed
   miserably. The humiliating Treaty of Ripon, signed after the end of the
   Second Bishops' War in October 1640, required the King to pay the
   expenses of the Scottish army he had just fought. Charles took the
   unusual step of summoning the magnum concilium, the ancient council of
   all the Peers of the Realm, who were considered the King's hereditary
   counsellors. The magnum concilium had not been summoned for centuries.
   On the advice of the peers, Charles summoned another Parliament, which,
   in contrast with its predecessor, became known as the Long Parliament.
   Sir Anthony van Dyck. Equestrian portrait of Charles I with Seignior de
   St Antoine
   Sir Anthony van Dyck. Equestrian portrait of Charles I with Seignior de
   St Antoine

   The Long Parliament assembled in November 1640 under the leadership of
   John Pym, and proved just as difficult for Charles as the Short
   Parliament. Although the members of the House of Commons thought of
   themselves as conservatives defending the King, Church and
   Parliamentary government against innovations in religion and the
   tyranny of Charles' advisors, Charles viewed many of them as dangerous
   rebels trying to undermine his rule.

   To prevent the King from dissolving it at will, Parliament passed the
   Triennial Act, to which the Royal Assent was granted in February 1641.
   The Act required that Parliament was to be summoned at least once every
   three years, and that when the King failed to issue proper summons, the
   members could assemble on their own. In May, he assented to an even
   more far-reaching Act, which provided that Parliament could not be
   dissolved without its own consent. Charles was forced into one
   concession after another. He agreed to bills of attainder authorising
   the executions of Thomas Wentworth and William Laud. Ship money, fines
   in destraint of knighthood and forced loans were declared unlawful, and
   the hated Courts of Star Chamber and High Commission were abolished.
   Although he made several important concessions, Charles improved his
   own military position by securing the favour of the Scots. He finally
   agreed to the official establishment of Presbyterianism; in return, he
   was able to enlist considerable anti-parliamentary support.
   Henrietta Maria (c. 1633) by Sir Anthony van Dyck
   Henrietta Maria (c. 1633) by Sir Anthony van Dyck

   In November 1641, the House of Commons passed the Grand Remonstrance,
   denouncing all the abuses of power Charles had committed since the
   beginning of his reign. The tension was heightened when the Irish
   rebelled against Protestant English rule and rumours of Charles'
   complicity reached Parliament. An army was required to put down the
   rebellion but many members of the House of Commons feared that Charles
   might later use it against Parliament itself. The Militia Bill was
   intended to wrest control of the army from the King, but Charles
   refused to agree to it. However, Parliament decreed The Protestation as
   an attempt to lessen the conflict.

   When rumours reached Charles that Parliament intended to impeach his
   Catholic Queen, Henrietta Maria, he took drastic action. His wife
   persuaded him to arrest the five members of the House of Commons who
   led the anti-Stuart faction on charges of high treason, but, when the
   King had made his decision, she made the mistake of informing a friend
   who in turn alerted Parliament. Charles entered the House of Commons
   with an armed force on 4 January 1642, but found that his opponents had
   already escaped, he asked the Speaker, William Lenthall, as to their
   where about to which Lenthall famously replied: "May it please your
   Majesty, I have neither eyes to see nor tongue to speak in this place
   but as the House is pleased to direct me, whose servant I am here.". By
   violating Parliament with an armed force, Charles made the breach
   permanent. Many in Parliament thought Charles's actions outrageous as
   did the corporation and City of London which moved firmly behind
   Parliament. Charles no longer felt safe in London and he went north to
   raise an army against Parliament; the Queen, at the same time, went
   abroad to raise money to pay for it.

English Civil war

   The English Civil War had not yet started, but both sides began to arm.
   After futile negotiations, Charles raised the royal standard (an
   anachronistic mediæval gesture) in Nottingham on 22 August 1642. He
   then set up his court at Oxford, when his government controlled roughly
   the north and west of England, Parliament remaining in control of
   London and the south and east. Charles raised an army using the archaic
   method of the Commission of Array. The Civil War started on 25 October
   1642 with the inconclusive Battle of Edgehill and continued
   indecisively through 1643 and 1644, until the Battle of Naseby tipped
   the military balance decisively in favour of Parliament. There followed
   a great number of defeats for the Royalists, and then the Siege of
   Oxford, from which Charles escaped in April 1646. He put himself into
   the hands of the Scottish Presbyterian army at Newark, and was taken to
   nearby Southwell while his "hosts" decided what to do with him. The
   Presbyterians finally arrived at an agreement with Parliament and
   delivered Charles to them in 1647. He was imprisoned at Holdenby House
   in Northamptonshire, until cornet George Joyce took him by force to
   Newmarket in the name of the New Model Army. At this time, mutual
   suspicion had developed between the New Model Army and Parliament, and
   Charles was eager to exploit it.

   He was then transferred first to Oatlands and then to Hampton Court,
   where more involved but fruitless negotiations took place. He was
   persuaded that it would be in his best interests to escape — perhaps
   abroad, perhaps to France, or perhaps to the custody of Colonel Robert
   Hammond, Parliamentary Governor of the Isle of Wight. He decided on the
   last course, believing Hammond to be sympathetic, and fled on 11
   November. Hammond, however, was opposed to Charles, whom he confined in
   Carisbrooke Castle.

   From Carisbrooke, Charles continued to try to bargain with the various
   parties, eventually coming to terms with the Scottish Presbyterians
   that he would allow the establishment of Presbyterianism in England as
   well as Scotland for a trial period. The Royalists rose in July 1648
   igniting the Second Civil War, and as agreed with Charles the Scots
   invaded England. Most of the uprisings in England were put down by
   forces loyal to Parliament after little more than skirmishes, but
   uprisings in Kent, Essex and Cumberland, the rebellion in Wales and the
   Scottish invasion involved the fighting of pitched battles and
   prolonged sieges. But with the defeat of the Scots at the Battle of
   Preston, the Royalists lost any chance of winning the war.

Trial and execution

   Charles was moved to Hurst Castle at the end of 1648, and thereafter to
   Windsor Castle. In January 1649, in response to Charles' defiance of
   parliament even after defeat, and his encouraging the second Civil War
   while in captivity, the House of Commons passed an Act of Parliament
   creating a court for Charles's trial. After the first Civil War, the
   parliamentarians still accepted the premise that the King, although
   wrong, had been able to justify his fight, and that he would still be
   entitled to limited powers as King under a new constitutional
   settlement. It was now felt that by provoking the second Civil War even
   while defeated and in captivity, Charles showed himself incorrigible,
   dishonourable, and responsible for unjustifiable bloodshed.

   The idea of trying a king was a novel one; previous monarchs had been
   deposed, but had never been brought to trial as monarchs. The High
   Court of Justice established by the Act consisted of 135 Commissioners
   (all firm Parliamentarians); the prosecution was led by Solicitor
   General John Cook.

   His trial on charges of high treason and "other high crimes" began on
   20 January 1649, but Charles refused to enter a plea, claiming that no
   court had jurisdiction over a monarch. He believed that his own
   authority to rule had been given to him by God when he was crowned and
   anointed, and that the power wielded by those trying him was simply
   that which grew out of a barrel of gunpowder. The court, by contrast,
   proposed that no man is above the law. Over a period of a week, when
   Charles was asked to plead three times, he refused. It was then normal
   practice to take a refusal to plead as pro confesso: an admission of
   guilt, which meant that the prosecution could not call witnesses to its
   case. However, the trial did hear witnesses. Fifty-nine of the
   Commissioners signed Charles' death warrant, on 29 January 1649. After
   the ruling, he was led from St. James's Palace, where he was confined,
   to the Palace of Whitehall, where an execution scaffold had been
   erected in front of the Banqueting House.
   This contemporary German print depicts Charles I's decapitation
   This contemporary German print depicts Charles I's decapitation

   When Charles was beheaded on 30 January 1649, it is reputed that he
   wore a heavy cotton shirt as to prevent the cold January weather
   causing any noticeable shivers that the crowd could have been mistaken
   for fear or weakness. He put his head on the block after saying a
   prayer and signalled the executioner when he was ready; he was then
   beheaded with one clean stroke.

   Phillip Henry records that moments after the execution, a moan was
   heard from the assembled crowd, some of whom then dipped their
   handkerchiefs in his blood, thus starting the cult of the Martyr King.
   However no other eyewitness source including Samuel Pepys records this.
   Henry's account was written during the Restoration, some 12 years after
   the event. Henry was 19 when the King was executed and he and his
   family were Royalist propaganda writers.

   There is some debate over the identity of the man who beheaded the
   King, who was masked at the scene. It is known that the Commissioners
   approached Richard Brandon, the common Hangman of London, but that he
   refused, and contemporary sources do not generally identify him as the
   King's headsman. Ellis's Historical Inquiries, however, names him as
   the executioner, contending that he stated so before dying. It is
   possible he relented and agreed to undertake the commission, but there
   are others who have been identified. An Irishman named Gunning is
   widely believed to have beheaded Charles, and a plaque naming him as
   the executioner is on show in Galway, Ireland. William Hewlett was
   convicted of regicide after the Restoration. In 1661, two people
   identified as "Dayborne and Bickerstaffe" were arrested but then
   discharged. Henry Walker, a revolutionary journalist, or his brother
   William, were suspected but never charged. Various local legends around
   England name local worthies. An examination performed in 1813 at
   Windsor suggests that the execution was done by an experienced
   headsman.

   It was common practice for the head of a traitor to be held up and
   exhibited to the crowd with the words "Behold the head of a traitor!";
   although Charles' head was exhibited, the words were not used. In an
   unprecedented gesture, one of the revolutionary leaders, Oliver
   Cromwell, allowed the King's head to be sewn back on his body so the
   family could pay its respects. Charles was buried in private and at
   night on 7 February 1649, in the Henry VIII vault inside St George's
   Chapel in Windsor Castle. The King's son, King Charles II, later
   planned an elaborate royal mausoleum, but it was never built.

   Ten days after Charles' execution, a memoir purporting to be from
   Charles' hand appeared for sale. This book, the Eikon Basilike (Greek:
   the "Royal Portrait"), contained an apologia for royal policies, and
   proved an effective piece of royalist propaganda. William Levett,
   Charles's groom of the bedchamber, who had accompanied Charles on the
   day of his execution, would later swear in a statement that he had
   witnessed the King writing the Eikon Basilike. John Cooke published the
   speech he would have delivered if Charles had entered a plea, while
   Parliament commissioned John Milton to write a rejoinder, the
   Eikonoklastes ("The Iconoclast"), but the response made little headway
   against the pathos of the royalist book.

   Various prodigies were recorded in the contemporary popular press in
   relation to the execution - a beached whale at Dover died within an
   hour of the King; a falling star appeared that night over Whitehall; a
   man who had said that the King deserved to die had his eyes pecked out
   by crows.

Legacy

   Memorial to Charles I at Carisbrooke Castle, Isle of Wight
   Memorial to Charles I at Carisbrooke Castle, Isle of Wight

   With the monarchy overthrown, power was assumed by a Council of State,
   which included Oliver Cromwell, then Lord General of the Parliamentary
   Army. The Long Parliament (known by then as the Rump Parliament) which
   had been called by Charles I in 1640 continued to exist until Cromwell
   forcibly disbanded it in 1653. Cromwell then became Lord Protector of
   England, Scotland and Ireland; a monarch in all but name: he was even
   "invested" on the royal coronation chair. Upon his death in 1658,
   Cromwell was briefly succeeded by his son, Richard Cromwell. Richard
   Cromwell was an ineffective ruler, and the Long Parliament was
   reinstated in 1659. The Long Parliament dissolved itself in 1660, and
   the first elections in twenty years led to the election of a Convention
   Parliament which restored Charles I's eldest son to the monarchy as
   Charles II.

   Upon the Restoration, Charles II added a commemoration of his father—to
   be observed on 30 January, the date of the execution—to the Book of
   Common Prayer. In the time of Queen Victoria this was however removed
   due to popular discontent with the commemorating of a dead monarch with
   a major feast day of the Church; now, 30 January is only listed as a
   "Lesser Festival". There are several Anglican/Episcopal churches
   dedicated to Charles I as "King and Martyr", in England, Canada,
   Australia and the United States. The Society of King Charles the Martyr
   was established in 1894 by one Mrs. Greville-Negent, assisted by Fr.
   James Fish, rector of St Margaret Pattens, London. The objectives of
   the SKCM include prayer for the Church of England and the Anglican
   Communion, promoting a wider observance of 30 January in commemoration
   of Charles' "martyrdom", and the reinstatement of his feast day in the
   Book of Common Prayer. King Charles is regarded as a martyr by some
   Anglicans for his notion of "Christian Kingship", and as a "defender of
   the Anglican faith".

   The Colony of Carolina in North America was named for Charles I.
   Carolina later separated into North Carolina and South Carolina, which
   eventually declared independence from England during the formation of
   the United States. To the north in the Virginia Colony, Cape Charles,
   the Charles River, Charles River Shire and Charles City Shire were
   named for him. Charles City Shire survives almost 400 years later as
   Charles City County, Virginia. The Virginia Colony is now the
   Commonwealth of Virginia (one of the four U.S. states that are called
   commonwealths), and retains its official nickname of "The Old Dominion"
   bestowed by Charles II because it had remained loyal to Charles I
   during the English Civil War.

Style and arms

   The official style of Charles I was "Charles, by the Grace of God, King
   of England, Scotland, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, etc."
   (The claim to France was only nominal, and was asserted by every
   English King since Edward III, regardless of the amount of French
   territory actually controlled.) The authors of his death warrant,
   however, did not wish to use the religious portions of his title. It
   only referred to him as "Charles Stuart, King of England".

   Whilst he was King, Charles I's arms were: Quarterly, I and IV
   Grandquarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) and Gules
   three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion
   rampant within a tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III
   Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland).

Ancestry and Descent

Ancestors

   CAPTION: Charles I's ancestors in three generations

   Charles I of England Father:
   James I of England Paternal Grandfather:
   Henry Stuart, Duke of Albany Paternal Great-grandfather:
   4th Earl of Lennox
   Paternal Great-grandmother:
   Margaret Douglas
   Paternal Grandmother:
   Mary I, Queen of Scots Paternal Great-grandfather:
   James V of Scotland
   Paternal Great-grandmother:
   Marie de Guise
   Mother:
   Anne of Denmark Maternal Grandfather:
   Frederick II of Denmark Maternal Great-grandfather:
   Christian III of Denmark
   Maternal Great-grandmother:
   Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg
   Maternal Grandmother:
   Sofie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin Maternal Great-grandfather:
   Ulrich III of Mecklenburg-Schwerin
   Maternal Great-grandmother:
   Elizabeth of Denmark

Marriage and Issue

   Painting of Charles I's children. The future Charles II is depicted at
   centre, stroking the dog
   Painting of Charles I's children. The future Charles II is depicted at
   centre, stroking the dog

   Charles was father to a total of nine legitimate children, two of whom
   would eventually succeed him as king. Several other children died in
   childhood.

   Charles is also believed to have had a daughter, prior to his marriage
   with Henrietta Maria. Her name was Joanna Brydges, born 1619-20, the
   daughter of a Miss Brydges ("a member of a younger branch of the
   ancient Kentish family of that name"), possibly from the line of
   Brydges of Chandos and Sudeley. Joanna Brydges who was provided for by
   the estate of Mandinam, Carmarthenshire, was brought up in secrecy at
   Glamorgan, Wales. She went on to become second wife to Bishop Jeremy
   Taylor, author of "Holy Living" and "Holy Dying" and chaplain to both
   Archbishop Laud and Charles I. The Bishop and his wife Joanna Brydges
   left for Ireland, where Jeremy Taylor became Bishop of Down, Connor and
   Dromore in 1660. Joanna Brydges and Jeremy Taylor had several children,
   including two daughters, Joanna Taylor(Harrison) and Mary Taylor
   (Marsh).

   See also Descendants of Charles I of England which, eventually leads to
   Prince William of Wales, future King of Great Britain.

   Name Birth Death Notes
   Charles James, Duke of Cornwall 13 March 1629 13 March 1629 Stillbirth.
   Charles II, King of England 29 May 1630 6 February 1685 Married
   Catherine of Braganza (1638 - 1705) in 1663. No legitimate issue.
   Believed to have fathered such illegitimate children as James Scott,
   1st Duke of Monmouth, who later rose against James II.
   Mary, Princess Royal 4 November 1631 24 December 1660 Married William
   II, Prince of Orange (1626 - 1650) in 1648. Had issue.
   James II, King of England 14 October 1633 16 September 1701 Married (1)
   Anne Hyde (1637 - 1671) in 1659. Had issue;
   Married (2) Mary of Modena (1658 - 1718) in 1673. Had issue.
   Elizabeth, Princess of England 29 December 1635 8 September 1650 No
   issue.
   Anne, Princess of England 17 March 1637 8 December 1640 Died young. No
   issue.
   Catherine, Princess of England 29 January 1639 29 January 1639
   Stillbirth
   Henry, Duke of Gloucester 8 July 1640 18 September 1660 No issue.
   Henrietta Anne, Princess of England 16 June 1644 30 June 1670 Married
   Philip I, Duke of Orléans (1640 - 1701) in 1661. Had issue

Popular culture

     * The television special Blackadder: The Cavalier Years features a
       surreal version of the events leading to his execution, played for
       comedy.
     * The English Civil War and events leading to the execution of King
       Charles I are portrayed with dark humour in the Monty Python song
       Oliver Cromwell, which notes that "The most interesting thing about
       King Charles the First is that he was five foot six inches tall at
       the start of his reign, but only four foot eight inches tall at the
       end of it".
     * Charles's life has often been treated seriously in novels and plays
       as well as on film. A notable film depiction was 1970s Cromwell,
       with Alec Guinness as the King, and Richard Harris as the title
       character.
     * In Arturo Pérez-Reverte's novel, El Capitán Alatriste, Charles I
       appears briefly while on his expedition with George Villiers, 1st
       Duke of Buckingham to Spain in 1623.
     * The events leading to his execution are woven into the storyline of
       Alexandre Dumas, père's Twenty Years After, the sequel to The Three
       Musketeers.
     * King Charles is an important character in Poul Anderson's A
       Midsummer Tempest, a fantasy alternate history of the English Civil
       War.

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