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Domesticated turkey

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Birds

               iDomesticated turkey
   Large White Turkey
   Large White Turkey

                             Conservation status

   Domesticated
            Scientific classification

   Kingdom: Animalia
   Phylum:  Chordata
   Class:   Aves
   Order:   Galliformes
   Family:  Meleagrididae
   Genus:   Meleagris

                                   Species

   Meleagris gallopavo (modern)
   Meleagris ocellata (historical)

   The domesticated turkey is a large poultry bird raised for food. The
   modern domesticated turkey descends from the wild turkey (Meleagris
   gallopavo), one of the two species of turkey (genus Meleagris);
   however, in the past the ocellated turkey (Meleagris ocellata) was also
   domesticated. Despite the name, turkeys have no relation to the country
   of Turkey and are instead native to North America.

   The turkey is reared throughout temperate parts of the World, and is a
   popular form of poultry, partially because industrialised farming has
   made it very cheap for the amount of meat it produces. The female
   domesticated turkey is referred to as a hen and the chick as a poult.
   In the United States, the male is referred to as a tom, whilst in
   Europe, the male is a stag.

   The great majority of domesticated turkeys have white feathers,
   although brown or bronze-feathered varieties are also raised.

History

   Turkeys
   Enlarge
   Turkeys

   Turkeys were taken to Europe shortly after their discovery in the New
   World. For this reason, many distinct turkey breeds were developed in
   Europe due to cross breeding. (e.g. Spanish Black, Royal Palm). Turkey
   was one of the many game species hunted by early American colonists and
   is thought to have been served at the first Thanksgiving, although
   there is no evidence to support this claim. Most likely, venison and/or
   duck was served at the first thanksgiving. Turkeys have been a staple
   on farms since their discovery in colonial times. In the midwestern
   United States in the mid to late 1800s, domestic turkeys were actually
   herded across the range in a manner similar to herding cattle. In the
   early 20th century, many advances were made in the breeding of turkeys
   resulting in varieties such as the Beltsville Small White.

   Suggestions have been made that the Mexican Ocellated Turkey (Meleagris
   ocellata) might also be involved, but the plumage of domestic turkeys
   does not support this theory; in particular, the chest tuft of domestic
   turkeys is a clear indicator of descent from the Wild Turkey (the
   Ocellated Turkey does not have this tuft).

Availability and Commercial Production

   Prior to World War II, turkey was something of a luxury in Britain,
   with goose or beef a more common Christmas dinner (In Charles Dickens'
   A Christmas Carol, Bob Cratchit had a goose before Scrooge bought him a
   turkey). Intensive farming of turkeys from the late 1940s, however,
   dramatically cut the price and it became far and away the most common
   Christmas dinner meat. With the availability of refrigeration, whole
   turkeys could be shipped frozen to distant markets. Later advances in
   control of disease increased production even more. Advances in
   shipping, changing consumer preferences and the proliferation of
   commercial poultry plants for butchering animals has made fresh turkey
   available to the consumer.

   Approximately two to four billion pounds of poultry feathers are
   produced every year by the poultry producing industry. Most of the
   feathers are usually ground up and used as filler for animal feed.
   Researchers at the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) have
   patented a method of removing the stiff quill from the fibers which
   make up the feather. As this a potential untapped supply of natural
   fibers, research has been conducted at Philadelphia University to
   determine textile applications for feather fibers. To date, turkey
   feather fibers have been blended with nylon and spun into yarn which
   was then used for knitting. The yarns were tested for strength while
   the fabrics were evaluated as potential insulation materials. In the
   case of the yarns, as the percentage of turkey feather fibers increased
   the strength decreased. In fabric form, as the percentage of turkey
   feather fibers increased the heat retention capability of the fabric
   increased.

Breeding

   Large White turkey male
   Enlarge
   Large White turkey male

   Modern animal husbandry has resulted in significant differences between
   wild turkeys and commercial farm animals. Broad-breasted varieties are
   prized for their white meat, fast growth, and excellent feed-conversion
   ratios. Broad-breasted varieties are typically produced by artificial
   insemination to avoid injury of the hens by the much larger toms and
   because the physical changes resulting in broad (double) breasts have
   also rendered most males incapable of natural mating. Modern commercial
   varieties have also lost much of their natural ability to forage for
   food, fly, walk normally, and to escape predators. For this reason,
   many non-commercial hobbyists as well as organic farmers grow
   "heritage" breeds such as the Royal Palm or Naragansett -- varieties
   traditionally grown on farms prior to the advent of large-scale
   agriculture. Heritage breeds do not grow as quickly as commercial
   breeds and are single-breasted and thus have less white meat. Their
   meat has a much stronger turkey taste and does not require flavor
   additives or brining. Heritage turkeys are disease resistant, strong
   flyers and foragers, and can mate naturally and raise their young
   successfully.

   Male turkeys strut and demonstrate, usually in groups, to attract hens.
   They fan out their tail, puff up the feathers on their backs, and drag
   their primary flight feathers on the ground to produce a "scraping"
   sound. Part of the demonstration includes gobbling and producing a
   "puff" sound followed by a very low resonating "boing" that sounds like
   a rubber band in an echo chamber. The low resonating sound is low
   enough that it cannot be captured with traditional audio equipment. The
   hen in turn makes a "yelp" or call that attracts the males. Hens select
   their mate and crouch on the ground with neck extended to signal their
   willingness to mate. Hens continue to lay fertile eggs for three to
   four weeks from just one mating. However, when given the opportunity
   hens will mate every day.

   Some commercial turkey hens occasionally produce young from
   unfertilized eggs in a process called parthenogenesis.

   Most domesticated turkeys are grain-fed.

Butchering

   Still life with hanging turkey, Jean-Baptiste Siméon Chardin, 2nd third
   of 18th century.
   Enlarge
   Still life with hanging turkey, Jean-Baptiste Siméon Chardin, 2nd third
   of 18th century.

   To kill a live turkey, withhold food for a day to help ensure the
   digestive system is empty. (Some recommend also feeding the turkey hard
   liquor before slaughter, both to sedate it and perhaps as a way of
   flavoring the meat.) Putting the turkey in a bag, with one corner cut
   out for the head, helps keep the turkey from thrashing and damaging
   itself or the people involved in preparing it. One method is to hammer
   two nails into a stump and bend them, then put the turkey's head on the
   stump and turn the nails to hold the turkey's head still, then remove
   the turkey's head with an axe. The turkey will thrash for a few
   moments. More commonly, a turkey is placed upside down inside a metal
   cone manufactured for this purpose, its neck is cut, and the blood is
   allowed to drain out. At this point, a process known as debraining may
   be applied, where the brain stem is severed by pushing a sharp knife or
   screwdriver in to the mouth and through the back of the throat towards
   the base of the skull and applying a twisting motion. Successful
   debraining will generally result in a bird that is easier to pluck.

   Hang the carcass upside down to bleed for a half hour or so. When
   bleeding is complete, the bird can be manually plucked, which gives a
   good quality carcass. Smaller feathers can be pulled off in a bunch;
   larger feathers need to be removed one at a time so as not to tear the
   skin. Stubborn feathers can be pulled with pliers or a forceps. The
   alternative is to scald the carcass in hot water for 1-3 minutes at a
   temperature of 60-80ºC before manual plucking. This greatly reduces the
   amount of labor required to remove the feathers, but care must be taken
   to avoid accidentally "cooking" the skin. When all the feathers are
   removed, rinse the turkey's anus to remove any residue, then insert a
   sharp knife just below the hip bone, but not so deep as to puncture any
   of the internal organs. Cut down and around on either side of the anus,
   making sure it's angled up to keep any excretion off the meat.
   Carefully pull out and discard. Then reach inside the turkey and remove
   all organs, as well as large globs of fat. If desired, the heart, liver
   (slice away from other innards, being careful not to puncture the green
   gall), and gizzard can be saved for giblets. If the gizzard is saved,
   slice it in half until the gravel inside grates against the knife, then
   slice around and open up, peeling away the inner layer and discarding
   the contents. After all the organs have been removed, turn the turkey
   around and cut around the circumference of the neck and peel down,
   exposing the esophogus and windpipe. For each, separate them from their
   attachment points and pull them out, including the crop in the case of
   the esophogus. Rinse the turkey out with cold water and, if desired,
   hang and chill for a day or so before freezing.

Turkeys as food

   Eating cooked turkey on holidays, especially Thanksgiving, is a common
   North American tradition.
   Enlarge
   Eating cooked turkey on holidays, especially Thanksgiving, is a common
   North American tradition.

   Turkeys are traditionally eaten as the main course of large feasts at
   Christmas in Europe and North America, as well as Thanksgiving in the
   United States and Canada, in both cases having displaced the
   traditional goose. While eating turkey was once mainly restricted to
   special occasions such as these, turkey is now eaten year round and
   forms a regular part of many diets.

   In countries where turkey is popular, it is available commonly in
   supermarkets. Turkeys are sold sliced and ground, as well as "whole" in
   a manner similar to chicken with the head, feet, and feathers removed.
   Frozen whole turkeys remain popular. Sliced turkey is frequently used
   as a sandwich meat or served as cold cuts. Ground turkey is sold just
   as ground beef, and is frequently marketed as a healthy beef
   substitute. Without proper preparation, turkey is usually considered to
   end up less moist than, say, chicken or duck. Leftovers from roast
   turkey are generally served as cold cuts on Boxing Day. In Israel,
   turkey, rather than lamb is usually the choice meat used to make
   Shawarma.

   Turkey sandwiches are very popular at sandwich chains.

   Wild turkeys, while technically the same species as domesticated
   turkeys, have a very different taste from farm-raised turkeys. Almost
   all of the meat is "dark" (even the breasts) with a more intense turkey
   flavor. Older heritage breeds also differ in flavor.

   Turkey is often found as a processed meat. It can be smoked and as such
   is sometimes sold as turkey ham. Twisted helices of turkey meat sold as
   turkey twizzlers came to prominence in the UK in 2004 when chef Jamie
   Oliver campaigned to have them and similar foods removed from school
   dinners.

Cooking

   Both fresh and frozen turkeys are used for cooking; as with most foods,
   fresh turkeys are generally preferred, although they cost more. Around
   holiday seasons, high demand for fresh turkeys often makes them
   difficult to purchase without ordering in advance. However, the large
   size of the turkeys typically used for consumption makes defrosting
   them a major endeavor: a typically-sized turkey will take several days
   to properly defrost.

   Turkeys are usually baked or roasted in an oven for several hours,
   often while the cook prepares the rest of the meal. Sometimes, a turkey
   is brined before baking to enhance flavor and moisture content. In some
   areas, particularly the American South, they may also be deep fried in
   hot oil (often peanut oil) for 30 to 45 minutes by using a turkey
   fryer. Deep frying turkey has become something of a fad, with hazardous
   consequences for those unprepared to safely handle the large quantities
   of hot oil required.

Accompaniments

   For Christmas in Britain, turkey is traditionally served with winter
   vegetables including roast potatoes, Brussels sprouts, and parsnips.
   Cranberry sauce is the traditional condiment in the northern rural
   areas of Britain where wild cranberries grow. In the south and in urban
   areas, where cranberries until recently were difficult to obtain, bread
   sauce was used in its place, but the availability of commercial
   cranberry sauce has seen a rise in its popularity in these areas too.
   Sometimes sausagemeat, cocktail sausages or liver wrapped in bacon is
   also served (known as bacon rolls or " pigs in blankets").

   Especially during holiday seasons, stuffing is traditionally served
   with turkey. There are many varieties: oatmeal, chestnut, sage and
   onion (flavoured bread), and sausage (possibly with mashed potato) are
   the most traditional. Stuffing may either be used to stuff the turkey
   (as the name implies), or may be cooked separately and served as a side
   dish.

   For Thanksgiving in the United States and Canada, turkey is
   traditionally served with cranberry sauce and gravy. Other items vary,
   but common complementary dishes include mashed potatoes, dinner rolls,
   various vegetables (such as corn, green beans, squash, and sweet
   potatoes), and various types of pie for dessert (such as pumpkin, apple
   and pecan). One humorous decades-old Thanksgiving tradition in the
   United States is the annual Presidential "pardon" of a selected turkey,
   which meets the President and then is taken to a petting zoo instead of
   a slaughterhouse.

Health concerns

   Turkey is generally considered healthier and less fattening than red
   meat. Turkey is high in tryptophan, and is commonly credited with
   causing sleepiness after a meal, however this is largely a
   misconception. Turkey dinners are commonly large meals served with
   carbohydrates, fats, and alcohol in a relaxed atmosphere, all of which
   are bigger contributors to post-meal sleepiness than the tryptophan in
   turkey.

Turkeys in culture

   Norman Rockwell featured a roast turkey as a symbol of prosperity in
   his painting " Freedom from Want", one of his Four Freedom Series.

Turkey dung for fuel

   Turkey droppings are planned to fuel an electric power plant in western
   Minnesota. The plant will provide 55 megawatts of power using 700,000
   tons of dung per year. Plant will begin operating in 2007. Three such
   plants are in operation in England.

   Retrieved from " http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domesticated_turkey"
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