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Double bass

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   CAPTION: Double bass

                 Double bass

                Classification

   String instrument ( bowed)
                 Playing range
              Related instruments
     * Violin family ( Violin, Viola, Cello)
     * Viol

                   Musicians
     * List of Bassists

   The double bass is the largest and lowest pitched bowed string
   instrument used in the modern symphony orchestra. It is used
   extensively in Western classical music as a standard member of the
   string section of symphony orchestras and smaller string ensembles. In
   addition, it is used in other genres such as jazz, blues, rock and
   roll, psychobilly, rockabilly, and bluegrass. As with most other string
   instruments, the double bass is played with a bow (arco) or by plucking
   the strings ( pizzicato).

Origins and history

   The double bass is generally regarded as the only modern descendant of
   the viola da gamba family of instruments, a family which originated in
   Europe in the 15th century, and as such it can be described as a "bass
   viol."

   Before the 20th century many double basses had only three strings, in
   contrast to the five to six strings typical of instruments in the viola
   da gamba family or the four strings of instruments in the violin
   family.

   The double bass' proportions are dissimilar to those of the violin; for
   example, it is deeper (the distance from top to back is proportionally
   much greater than the violin). In addition, while the violin has
   bulging shoulders, most double basses have shoulders carved with a more
   acute slope, like members of the viola da gamba family. Many very old
   double basses have had their shoulders cut or sloped to aid playing
   with modern techniques. Before these modifications, the design of their
   shoulders was closer to instruments of the violin family.

   The double bass is the only modern bowed string instrument that is
   tuned in fourths (like viola da gambas), rather than fifths (see
   Tuning, below).

   The issue of the instrument's exact lineage is still a matter of some
   debate, and the supposition that the double bass is a direct descendant
   of the viola da gamba family is an issue that has not been entirely
   resolved.

   In his A New History of the Double Bass, Paul Brun asserts, with many
   references, that the double bass has origins as the true bass of the
   violin family. He states that, while the exterior of the double bass
   may resemble the viola da gamba, the internal construction of the
   double bass is nearly identical to that of other instruments in the
   violin family, and is very different from the internal structure of
   viols.

Terminology

   A person who plays this instrument is called a bassist, double bassist,
   double bass player, contrabassist, contrabass player, or simply bass
   player.

   The instrument's standard English name, double bass may be derived from
   the size of the double size, since it is approximately twice as large
   as the cello, or because the double bass was originally used to double
   the cello part an octave lower. It has also been suggested that the
   name derives from its viol family heritage, in that it is tuned lower
   than the standard bass viola da gamba. The name also refers to the fact
   that the sounding pitch of the double bass is an octave below the bass
   clef. The name contrabass comes from the instrument's Italian name,
   contrabbasso.

   Other terms for the instrument among classical performers are string
   bass, bass viol, or simply bass. Jazz musicians often call it the
   acoustic bass to distinguish it from electric bass guitars. Especially
   when used in folk and bluegrass music, the instrument can also be
   referred to as an upright bass, standup bass, bass fiddle, bass violin,
   doghouse bass, dog-house, bull fiddle, hoss bass, or bunkhouse bass.

Design

   Example of a Busetto-shaped double bass: Copy of a Matthias Klotz
   (1700) by Rumano Solano
   Enlarge
   Example of a Busetto-shaped double bass: Copy of a Matthias Klotz
   (1700) by Rumano Solano

   The design of the double bass, in contrast to the instruments in the
   violin family, has never been fully standardized.

   In general there are two major approaches to the design outline shape
   of the double bass, these being the violin form, and the viol or gamba
   form. A third less common design called the busetto shape (and very
   rarely the guitar or pear shape) can also be found. The back of the
   instrument can vary from being a round, carved back similar to that of
   the violin, or a flat and angled back similar to the viol family (with
   variations in between).

   The double bass features many parts that are similar to members of the
   violin family including a bridge, f-holes, a tailpiece and a scroll.

   Unlike the rest of the violin family, the double bass still reflects
   influence and can be considered partly derived from the viol family of
   instruments, in particular the violone, the bass member of the viol
   family.

   The double bass also differs from members of the violin family in that
   the shoulders are (sometimes) sloped, the back is often angled (both to
   allow easier access to the instrument, particularly in the upper range)
   and machine heads are almost always used for tuning.

   Lack of standardization in design means that one double bass can sound
   and look very different from another. To see some of the variations and
   construction approaches discussed above visit the websites quoted
   below.

Tone

   The sound and tone of the double bass is distinct from that of the
   fretted bass guitar and is similar to a cello. The differences in sound
   come from several sources.

   The double bass's strings are stopped by the finger directly on the
   wooden fingerboard. This tends to make the string buzz against the
   fingerboard near the stopped position. The fretted bass guitar's
   strings are stopped with the aid of metal frets and buzzing does not
   generally occur.

   Also, the double bass is an acoustic instrument with a hollow body that
   selectively amplifies the tone of the plucked or bowed strings. In
   contrast, bass guitars are often made with a solid wood body, and the
   sound is produced by electronic amplification of the vibration of the
   strings, which is "sensed" by magnetic pickups that also add to the
   characteristic tone.

Construction

   A diagram of a violin-form bass
   Enlarge
   A diagram of a violin-form bass

   The double bass is closest in construction to the violone (literally
   "large viol"), the largest and lowest member of the viola da gamba
   family. Unlike the violone, however, the fingerboard of the double bass
   is unfretted, and the double bass has fewer strings (the violone, like
   most viols, generally had six strings, although some specimens had five
   or four).

   An important distinction between the double bass and other members of
   the violin family is the construction of the pegbox. While the violin,
   viola, and cello all use friction pegs for gross tuning adjustments,
   the double bass has machine heads. This development makes fine tuners
   unnecessary. At the base of the double bass is a metal spike called the
   endpin, which rests on the floor. This endpin is generally more robust
   than that of a cello's due to the greater mass of the instrument.

   The soundpost and bass bar are components of the internal construction.
   The materials most often used are maple (back, neck, ribs), spruce
   (top), and ebony (fingerboard, tailpiece). The exception to this are
   the double basses sometimes used by blues, rockabilly, or bluegrass
   bassists, which have plywood- laminate tops and backs. All parts are
   glued together except the soundpost, bridge, nut and saddle, which are
   kept in place by string tension. The tuning machines are attached to
   the sides of the pegbox with wood screws. The key on the tuning machine
   turns a worm, driving a worm gear that winds the string.

Strings

   Historically, strings were made of gut, but since the 20th century
   steel has largely replaced gut due to its better playability. Gut
   strings are nowadays mostly used by individual players who prefer their
   tone. Some bassists who perform in baroque ensembles use gut strings to
   get a lighter, "warmer" tone that is more appropriate for music
   composed in the 1600s and early 1700s. In addition, bassists in
   rockabilly, traditional blues bands, and bluegrass groups often use gut
   strings, because they produce a "thumpy," darker tone when they are
   played pizzicato (plucked), which better approximates the sound heard
   on 1940s and 1950s recordings. Rockabilly and bluegrass bassists also
   prefer gut because it is much easier to perform the "slapping" upright
   bass style (in which the strings are percussively slapped and clicked
   against the fingerboard) with gut strings than with steel strings. (For
   more information on slapping, see the sections below on Modern playing
   styles, Double bass in bluegrass music, Double bass in jazz, and Double
   bass in popular music).

   Gut strings are more vulnerable to changes of humidity and temperature,
   and they break much more easily than steel strings. The change from gut
   to steel has also affected the instrument's playing technique over the
   last hundred years, because playing with steel strings allows the
   strings to be set up closer to the fingerboard, and, additionally,
   steel strings can be played in higher positions on the lower strings
   and still produce clear tone. The classic 19th century Franz Simandl
   method does not utilize the low E string in higher positions because
   with older gut strings set up high over the fingerboard, the tone was
   not clear in these higher positions. However, with modern steel
   strings, bassists can play with clear tone in higher positions on the
   low E and A strings, particularly when modern lighter-gauge,
   lower-tension steel strings (e.g. Corelli/Savarez strings) are used.

Tuning

   E-A-D-G; the standard tuning of the bass's open strings
   Enlarge
   E-A-D-G; the standard tuning of the bass's open strings

   The double bass is generally tuned in fourths, in contrast to the other
   members of the orchestral string family, which are all tuned in fifths.
   This avoids too long a finger stretch (known as an "extension"). Modern
   double basses are usually tuned (low to high) E-A-D-G. The lowest
   string is tuned to E (the same pitch as the lowest E on a modern piano,
   approx 41 Hz), nearly 3 octaves below middle C ); and the highest
   string is tuned to G, an octave and a fourth below middle C (approx 98
   Hz).

   A variety of tunings and numbers of strings were used on a variety of
   confusingly-named instruments through the sixteenth to the early
   twentieth centuries, by which time the four-stringed tuning mentioned
   above became almost universal. Much of the classical repertoire has
   notes that fall below the range of a standard double bass. Some
   bassists use a fifth string tuned to B three octaves below middle C.
   A low C extension
   Enlarge
   A low C extension

   Professional bass players with four-string double basses sometimes have
   a low "C extension" which extends the lowest string down as far as low
   C, an octave below the lowest note on the cello (more rarely, this
   string may be tuned to a low B). The extension is an extra section of
   fingerboard mounted up over the head of the bass, which requires the
   player to reach back over the pegs to play, or use a mechanical lever
   system. Notes below low "E" appear regularly in double bass parts in
   the Baroque and Classical eras, when the double bass was typically
   doubling the cello part an octave below. As well, in the Romantic era
   and the 20th-century, composers such as Mahler and Prokofiev
   specifically requested notes below the low "E."

   A small number of bass players choose to tune their strings in fifths,
   like a cello but an octave lower (C-G-D-A low to high). This tuning is
   mostly used by jazz players, as the major tenth can be played easily
   without a position shift, but is increasingly used by classical
   players, notably the Canadian bassist Joel Quarrington. Tuning in
   fifths can also make the instrument louder, because the strings have
   more common overtones, causing the strings to vibrate sympathetically.

   In classical solo playing the double bass is usually tuned a whole tone
   higher (F#-B-E-A). This higher tuning is called "solo tuning," whereas
   the regular tuning is known as "orchestral tuning." String tension
   differs so much between solo and orchestral tuning that a different set
   of strings is often employed that has a lighter gauge. It is not
   uncommon for students that require solo tuning for a short period of
   time to tune up orchestra strings. Therefore the strings are always
   labelled for either solo or orchestral. Sometimes published solo music
   is also arranged especially for either solo or orchestral tuning.

Pitch range

   The bass (or F) clef is used for most orchestral double bass music.
   Enlarge
   The bass (or F) clef is used for most orchestral double bass music.

   The lowest note of a double bass is an E1 (on standard four-string
   basses) at 41.20 Hz or a B0 (when 5 strings are used) at 30.87 hertz,
   and the highest notes are almost down at the bridge.

   In many double bass concertos harmonic tones are used. The use of
   natural harmonics (a technique often used by Giovanni Bottesini) and
   sometimes even "false" harmonics, where the thumb stops the note and
   the octave or other harmonic is activated by lightly touching the
   string at the relative node point, extend the double bass' range
   considerably.

   A solo player will cover some 5 or 6 octaves on his instrument using
   these harmonics, whereas in most orchestral music, the double bass
   parts seldom exceed 3 octaves.

   Since the range of the double bass lies largely below the standard bass
   clef, it is notated an octave higher (hence sounding an octave lower
   than written).

   This transposition applies even when reading the tenor clef and treble
   clef, which are used for the instrument's extreme upper range.

Playing posture

   Double bassists have the option to either stand or sit while playing
   the instrument. When standing, the double bass' height is set (by
   adjusting the endpin) so that the player may easily place the right
   hand close to the bridge, either with the bow (arco) or plucking
   (pizzicato). While personal opinions vary, often the endpin is set by
   aligning the first finger in either first or half position with the
   player's eye level. While sitting, a stool (which is measured by the
   player's seam length) is used. Soloists often stand and extend the
   endpin higher than normal while also adopting a sloping stance over the
   shoulder of the instrument in order to more comfortably reach the upper
   register in high passages.

   When playing the extreme upper range of the instrument (above the G
   below middle C), the player shifts his hand out from behind the neck
   and flattens it out, using the side of his thumb as a finger. This
   technique is called thumb position and is also a technique used on the
   cello. While playing in thumb position, the little finger is rarely
   used simply because its range is inefficient.

Bows

   The frogs of a French and German bow
   Enlarge
   The frogs of a French and German bow

   The double bass bow comes in two distinct forms. The "French" or
   "overhand" bow is similar in shape and implementation to the bow used
   on the other members of the orchestral string instrument family, while
   the "German" or "Butler" bow is typically broader and shorter, and held
   with the right hand grasping the frog in a loose fist.

   These two bows provide for different ways of moving the arm and
   distributing force on the strings. The French bow, because of the angle
   the hand holds the bow, is touted to be more maneuverable and provide
   the player with better control of the bow. The German bow is claimed to
   allow the player to apply more arm weight- and thus more force- on the
   strings. The differences between the two, however, are minute for a
   proficient player trained in using his/her respective bow. Both bows
   are used by modern players, and the choice between the two is a matter
   of personal preference.

German bow

   German-style bow
   Enlarge
   German-style bow

   The German bow Dragonetti is the older of the two designs. The bowing
   style was handed down from the time when the bows of all stringed
   instruments played had to be held in that fashion (middle three fingers
   between the stick and the hair) to maintain tension of the hair before
   screw threads were used.

   The German bow has a taller frog, and is held with the palm angled
   upwards, as used for the upright members of the viol family. When held
   in correct manner, the thumb rests on top of the stick. The index and
   middle fingers are held together and support the bow at the point where
   the frog meets the stick. The little finger supports the frog from
   underneath, while the ring finger does not support the bow at all.

French bow

   French-style bow
   Enlarge
   French-style bow

   The French bow was not widely popular until its adoption by
   19th-century virtuouso Giovanni Bottesini. This style is more similar
   to the traditional bows of the smaller string family instruments. It is
   held as if the hand is resting comfortably by the side of the performer
   with the palm facing toward the bass. The thumb rests at the edge of
   the U-curve in the frog while the other fingers drape on the other side
   of the bow. Various styles dictate the curve of the fingers and thumb,
   as do the style of piece- a more pronounced curve and lighter hold on
   the bow is used for virtuosic or more delicate pieces, while a flatter
   curve and sturdier grip on the bow provides more power for rich
   orchestral passages.

Rosin

   In order to allow the hair to grip the string, string players use rosin
   on the hair of their bows. Double bass rosin is generally softer and
   stickier than violin rosin, to allow the hair to grab the strings
   better, but players use a wide variety of rosins that vary from quite
   hard (like violin rosin) to quite soft, depending on the weather, the
   humidity, and the skill and preference of the player.

Stick material

   Pernambuco is regarded by many players as the best stick material, but
   due to its scarcity and expense, other materials are used in less
   expensive bows nowadays. Less expensive student bows may be constructed
   of solid fibreglass, or of less valuable varieties of brazilwood.
   Snakewood and carbon fibre are also used in bows of a variety of
   different qualities. The frog of the double bass bow is usually made
   out of ebony, although Snakewood is used by some lutheirs. The wire
   wrapping is gold or silver in quality bows, and the hair is usually
   horsehair. Some of the lowest-quality student bows feature synthetic
   fibreglass "hair". Double bass bows vary in length, but average around
   24" (70 cm).

Stringing

   The double bass bow is strung with white or black horsehair, or a
   combination of black and white (known as "salt and pepper") as opposed
   to the customary white horsehair used on the bows of other string
   instruments. The slightly rougher black hair is believed by some to
   "grab" the heavier strings better; similarly, some bassists and
   luthiers believe that it is easier to produce a smoother sound with the
   white variety.

Practical problems

Loudness

   Despite the size of the instrument, it is relatively quiet, primarily
   due to the fact that its range is so low. When the bass is being used
   as an ensemble instrument in orchestra, usually between four and eight
   bassists will play the part in unison. In jazz and blues settings, the
   bass is normally amplified. When writing solo passages for the bass,
   composers typically ensure that the orchestration is light, so it will
   not cover the bass.

Dexterity

   Performing on the bass can be physically taxing because the strings of
   the bass are larger and thicker than those of a smaller stringed
   instrument. As well, since the bass is much larger than other stringed
   instruments, the space between notes on the fingerboard is larger. As a
   result, bass parts have relatively fewer fast passages, double stops or
   large jumps in range. The increased use of playing techniques such as
   thumb position and modifications to the bass such as the use of
   lighter-gauge strings have reduced this problem to some degree.

Intonation

   As with all unfretted string instruments, performers must learn to
   precisely place their fingers to obtain the correct pitch. Because the
   bass is larger than other string instruments, the positions for the
   fingers are much further apart. As a result, more shifting of position
   is required, which increases the likelihood of intonation errors. As
   well, for bassists with smaller hands, the large spaces between pitches
   on the bass fingerboard may present a challenge, but is not that big of
   a challenge for the dedicated player.

Size

   Until recently, the large size of the bass meant that children were not
   able to start the bass until their hand size and height would allow
   them to play a 3/4-size instrument (the most commonly-available size).
   In the 1990s and 2000s, smaller half, quarter, eighth and even
   sixteenth-sized instruments became more widely available, which meant
   that children could start at a younger age. Also, some teachers use
   cellos strung with bass guitar strings for extremly young students.

Transportation issues

   The double bass' large size, combined with the fragility of the wooden
   top and sides and the wood bodies' sensitivity to temperature and
   humidity changes can make it difficult to transport and store. Although
   double basses made of more damage-resistant carbon-fibre laminates or
   plywood laminate are available, these are less likely to be used by
   professional classical or jazz bassists.

Modern playing styles

   In popular music genres, the instrument is usually played with
   amplification and almost exclusively played with a form of pizzicato
   where the sides of the fingers are used in preference to the tips of
   the fingers.

   In traditional jazz, swing, rockabilly, and psychobilly music, it is
   sometimes played in the slap style. This is a vigorous version of
   pizzicato where the strings are "slapped" against the fingerboard
   between the main notes of the bass line, producing a snare drum-like
   percussive sound. The main notes are either played normally or by
   pulling the string away from the fingerboard and releasing it so that
   it bounces off the fingerboard, producing a distinctive percussive
   attack in addition to the expected pitch. Notable slap style bass
   players, whose use of the technique was often highly syncopated and
   virtuosic, sometimes interpolated two, three, four, or more slaps in
   between notes of the bass line.

   "Slap style" had an important influence on electric bass guitar players
   who from about 1970 developed a technique called " slap and pop," where
   the thumb of the plucking hand is used to hit the string, making a
   slapping sound but still allowing the note to ring, and the index or
   middle finger of the plucking hand is used to pull the string back so
   it hits the fretboard, achieving the pop sound described above.

Classical repertoire

Orchestral excerpts

   There are many examples of famous bass parts in classical repertoire.
   The scherzo and trio from Beethoven's Fifth Symphony is a very famous
   orchestral excerpt for the double bass. The recitative at the beginning
   of the fourth movement of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony is also an
   extremely famous orchestral excerpt. Both of these examples are
   frequently requested in orchestra auditions. Another prominent example
   would be the opening of the prelude to act I of Wagner's Die Walküre.

Orchestral solos

   Some composers such as Richard Strauss assigned the double bass with
   daring parts and his symphonic poems and operas stretch the double bass
   to its limits. Some solo works have been written such as Mozart aria
   "Per questa bella mano" (By this beautiful hand), K. 612, for bass
   voice, double bass, and orchestra, featuring the double bass as an
   obbligato. "The Elephant" from Camille Saint-Saëns' The Carnival of the
   Animals is also a well known example of a double bass solo. The third
   movement of Gustav Mahler's 1st symphony features a solo for the double
   bass which quotes the children's song "Frere Jacques", transposed into
   a minor key. Sergei Prokofiev's "Lieutenant Kijé Suite" features an
   important double bass solo in the "Romance" movement. Later pieces with
   solo parts for the bass include a duo for cello and double bass by
   Gioacchino Rossini. Popular with bassists is Niccolò Paganini's Fantasy
   on a Theme by Rossini, a 20th-century transcription of the violin
   original. Benjamin Britten's The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra
   contains a prominent double bass solo.

Quintets

   The Trout Quintet by Franz Schubert added the double bass to the
   traditional piano quartet, creating an ensemble consisting of four
   members of the bowed string family plus piano. Antonín Dvořák wrote a
   much less well known quintet with double bass. The Prokofiev Quintet is
   a challenging piece, which features the violin, viola, double bass,
   clarinet and oboe. Other pieces written for string quintets with a
   double bass added onto a string quartet exist by Darius Milhaud, Murray
   Adaskin, Giovanni Bottesini, Domenico Dragonetti and Edgar Meyer.

Concertos

   Domenico Dragonetti influenced Beethoven to write more difficult bass
   parts which still remain as some of the most challenging bass parts
   written in the orchestral literature and he wrote a large number of
   works for the double bass which include ten concertos and various
   pieces for double bass and piano.

   Joseph Haydn wrote a concerto for double bass, Hob. VIIc 1 (now lost),
   for Johann Georg Schwenda, at Esteháza. Haydn wrote solo passages in
   the trios of the minuets in his symphonies numbers 6, 7 and 8 (Le
   Matin, Le Midi and Le Soir). Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf wrote two
   concertos for double bass and a Sinfonia Concertante for viola, double
   bass, and orchestra. Johann Baptist Vanhal also composed a concerto for
   the double bass which remains standard repertoire today.

   In addition to being a virtuoso player, Johannes Matthias Sperger was a
   very prolific composer and composed a large number of works for the
   double bass. Among his compositions include 18 double bass concertos,
   around 30 double bass sonatas, and string symphonies. Giovanni
   Bottesini, a 19th century virtuoso on the instrument, wrote a number of
   concert pieces for the instrument, including two concertos for the
   double bass and various chamber works for double bass and piano.

   In 1905, Serge Koussevitzky (better known as a conductor) wrote a
   concerto for the instrument. Reinhold Glière, composed four short
   pieces for double bass and piano (Intermezzo, Op. 9.1, Tarantella, Op.
   9.2, Preladium, Op. 32.1, and Scherzo, Op. 32.2). Eduard Tubin wrote a
   concerto for double bass in 1948. Other works for double bass and
   orchestra include Gunther Schuller's Concerto (1962), Hans Werner
   Henze's Concerto (1966), Jean Françaix's Concerto (1975), Einojuhani
   Rautavaara's Angel Of Dusk (1980), Gian-Carlo Menotti's Concerto
   (1983), Christopher Rouse's Concerto (1985), and John Harbison's
   Concerto for Bass Viol (2006). Other pieces for solo double bass
   include Luciano Berio's Psy (1989), for solo bass; Composition II
   (1973) by Galina Ustvolskaya, for eight double basses, drum and piano;
   and a sonata for double bass and piano by Paul Hindemith (who also
   wrote a number of other pieces for unusual solo instruments).

New works

   Over the last thirty years or so players such as Bertram Turetzky and
   Gary Karr have commissioned a large number of new works. Player and
   composer Edgar Meyer has written two concertos for solo double bass and
   a double concerto for double bass and cello for the instrument and had
   made arrangements of Bach's unaccompanied cello suites. Meyer also
   includes the double bass in the majority of his chamber music
   compositions.

   Player and teacher Rodney Slatford, via his company Yorke Edition, has
   published both old and new music for the double bass. Frank Proto,
   former bassist of the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra, has published a
   large number of his own compositions as well as new editions of classic
   double bass repertoire via his company Liben Music . George Vance,
   noted teacher and author of "Progressive Repertoire for Double Bass",
   provides numerous publications from his company Slava Publishing.
   Norman Ludwin, bassist and composer, has published with his company
   Ludwin Music over three hundred pieces for the bass, including many
   original works as well as transcriptions.

   Other composers that have written for solo double bass include
   Christian Wolff, Salvatore Sciarrino, Hans Werner Henze, Emil Tabakov,
   Vincent Persichetti, Miloslav Gajdoš, Henrik Hellstenius, Hans Fryba,
   Ase Hedstrom, Tom Johnson, Arne Nordheim, Luis Jorge Gonzalez, Oliver
   Knussen, Giacinto Scelsi, Bezhad Ranjbaran, and Asmund Feidje.

Use in jazz

   An example of pizzicato jazz bass technique
   Enlarge
   An example of pizzicato jazz bass technique

   Beginning around 1890, the early New Orleans jazz ensemble (which
   played a mixture of marches, ragtime, and dixieland music) was
   initially a marching band with sousaphone (or occasionally bass
   saxophone) supplying the bass line. As the music moved into bars and
   brothels, the double bass gradually replaced these wind instruments.
   Many early bassists doubled on both the "brass bass" and "string bass,"
   as the instruments were then often referred to. Bassists played
   "walking" basslines, scale-based lines which outlined the harmony.

   Because an unamplified double bass is generally the quietest instrument
   in a jazz band, many players of the 1920s and 1930s used the slap
   style, slapping and pulling the strings so that they make a rhythmic
   "slap" sound against the fingerboard. The slap style cuts through the
   sound of a band better than simply plucking the strings, and allowed
   the bass to be more easily heard on early sound recordings, as the
   recording equipment of that time did not favour low frequencies. For
   more about the slap style, see "Modern playing styles," above.

   Double bass players have contributed to the evolution of jazz. Examples
   include swing era players such as Jimmy Blanton, who played with Duke
   Ellington, and Oscar Pettiford, who pioneered the instrument's use in
   bebop. Ray Brown, known for his virtuosic bowing technique, has been
   called "the Fritz Kreisler of jazz double bass playing." The "cool"
   style of jazz was influenced by players such as Scott LaFaro and Percy
   Heath, whose solos were melodic. Paul Chambers (who worked with Miles
   Davis on the famous Kind of Blue album) achieved renown for being one
   of the first jazz bassists to play solos in arco (bowed) style.

   Free jazz was influenced by the composer/bassist Charles Mingus (who
   also contributed to hard bop) and Charlie Haden, best known for his
   work with Ornette Coleman. Beginning in the 1970s, some jazz
   bandleaders such as saxophonist Sonny Rollins and fusion bassist Jaco
   Pastorius began to substitute the electric bass guitar for the double
   bass. Apart from the jazz styles of jazz fusion and latin-influenced
   jazz, the double bass is still widely used in jazz .

Use in bluegrass

   The string bass is the most commonly-used bass instrument in bluegrass
   music and is almost always plucked, though some modern bluegrass
   bassists have also used a bow. The Englehardt or Kay brands of basses
   have long been popular choices for bluegrass bassists. While most
   bluegrass bassists use the 3/4 size bass, the full and 5/8 size basses
   are less frequently used.

   The bluegrass bass is responsible for keeping time in the polyrhythmic
   conditions of the bluegrass tune. Most important is the steady beat,
   whether fast, slow, in 4/4 time, 2/4 or 3/4 time.

   Early pre-bluegrass music was often accompanied by the cello, which was
   bowed as often as plucked. Some contemporary bluegrass bands favour the
   electric bass, but it has a different musical quality than the plucked
   upright bass. The upright bass gives energy and drive to the music with
   its percussive, woody tone. Slapping is a widely-used bluegrass playing
   technique.

   Common rhythms in bluegrass bass playing involve (with some exceptions)
   plucking on beats 1 and 3 in 4/4 time; beats 1 and 2 in 2/4 time, and
   beats 1 and 3 and in 3/4 time (waltz time). Bluegrass bass lines are
   usually extremely simple, typically staying on the root and fifth of
   each chord throughout much of a song. There are two main exceptions to
   this "rule". Bluegrass bassists often do a diatonic "walkup" or
   "walkdown" in which they play every beat of a bar for one or two bars,
   typically when there is a prominent chord change. In addition, if a
   bass player is given a solo, they may play a walking bass line.

   The first bluegrass bassist to rise to prominence was Howard Watts
   (also known as Cedric Rainwater), who played with Bill Monroe's Blue
   Grass Boys beginning in 1944. One of the most famous bluegrass bassists
   is Edgar Meyer, who has now branched out into newgrass, classical, and
   other genres.

Use in popular music

   In the 1940s, a new style of dance music called rhythm and blues
   developed, incorporating elements of the earlier styles of blues and
   swing. Louis Jordan, the first innovator of this style, featured a
   double bass in his group, the Tympany Five. The double bass remained an
   integral part of pop lineups throughout the 1950s, as the new genre of
   rock and roll was built largely upon the model of rhythm and blues,
   with strong elements also derived from jazz, country, and bluegrass.
   However, double bass players using their instruments in these contexts
   faced inherent problems. They were forced to compete with louder horn
   instruments (and later amplified electric guitars), making bass parts
   difficult to hear. The double bass is difficult to amplify in loud
   concert venue settings, because it can be prone to feedback "howls".
   The double bass is large and awkward to transport, which also created
   transportation problems for touring bands.

   In 1951, Leo Fender independently released his Precision Bass, the
   first commercially successful electric bass guitar. The electric bass
   was easily amplified with its built-in pickups, easily portable (less
   than a foot longer than an electric guitar), and easier to play in
   tune, thanks to the metal frets. In the 1960s and 1970s bands were
   playing at louder volumes and performing in larger venues. The electric
   bass was able to provide the huge, highly-amplified stadium-filling
   bass tone that the pop and rock music of this era demanded, and the
   double bass receded from the limelight of the popular music scene.

   The upright bass began making a modest comeback in popular music in the
   mid-1980s, in part due to a renewed interest in earlier forms of rock
   and country music. In the 1990s, improvements in pickups and amplifier
   designs for electro-acoustic horizontal and upright basses made it
   easier for bassists to get a good, clear amplified tone from an
   acoustic instrument. Some popular bands decided to anchor their sound
   with an upright bass instead of an electric bass. A trend for
   "unplugged" performances further helped to enhance the public's
   interest in the upright bass and acoustic bass guitars.

   The double bass is also favored over the electric bass guitar in many
   rockabilly and psychobilly bands. In such bands the bassist often plays
   with great showmanship, using slapping technique, sometimes spinning
   the bass around or even physically climbing onto the instrument while
   performing; this style was pioneered c. 1953 by Marshall Lytle, the
   bassist for Bill Haley & His Comets, and modern performers of such
   stunts include Scott Owen from The Living End.

Double bassists

Notable classical players of historical importance

     * Domenico Dragonetti (1763-1846) Virtuoso, composer, conductor
     * Giovanni Bottesini (1821-1889) Virtuoso, composer, conductor
     * Franz Simandl (1840-1912) Virtuoso, composer
     * Edouard Nanny (1872-1943) Virtuoso, composer
     * Serge Koussevitzky (1874-1951) Conductor, virtuoso, composer

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