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Episcopal polity

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          For “Episcopalianism”, see Anglicanism.

   Episcopal polity is a form of church governance which is hierarchical
   in structure with the chief authority over a local Christian church
   resting in a bishop (Greek: episcopos). This episcopal structure is
   found most often in the various churches of either Orthodox or Catholic
   lineage. Some churches founded independently of these lineages also
   employ this form of church governance.

   It is usually considered that the bishops of an episcopal polity derive
   part of their authority from an unbroken, personal Apostolic Succession
   from the Twelve Apostles of Jesus. Bishops with such authority are
   known as the historic episcopate.

   For most of the history of Christianity, episcopal government has been
   the only form known to Christianity. Including all the independent
   churches, the majority of Protestant churches are organized by either
   congregational or presbyterian church polities, both descended from the
   writings of John Calvin, a Protestant reformer working and writing
   independently following the break with the Roman Catholic Church
   precipitated by the 95 theses of Martin Luther. However, the majority
   of Christians are members of the historic churches of episcopal
   governance.

   There are subtle differences in governmental principles among episcopal
   churches at the present time. To some extent the separation of
   episcopal churches can be traced to these differences in ecclesiology,
   that is, their theological understanding of church and church
   governance. The churches of Rome and Constantinople (the Catholic and
   Eastern Orthodox Churches in modern terms) have an episcopal
   government, as do the Oriental Orthodox, Assyrian, Anglican, some
   Lutheran and many Methodist churches.

Description

   Churches having episcopal polity are governed by bishops, who have
   authority over dioceses. Their presidency over the diocese is both
   sacramental and political; as well as performing ordinations,
   confirmations, and consecrations, the bishop supervises the clergy of
   the diocese and represents the diocese both secularly and in the
   hierarchy of church governance.

   Bishops in this system may be subject to higher ranking bishops
   (variously called archbishops, metropolitans, and/or patriarchs,
   depending upon the tradition; see also Bishop for further explanation
   of the varieties of bishops.) They also meet in councils or synods.
   These synods, subject to presidency by higher ranking bishops, may
   govern the dioceses which are represented in the council, though the
   synod may also be purely advisory.

   Note that the presence of the office of "bishop" within a church is not
   proof of episcopal polity. For example, in The Church of Jesus Christ
   of Latter-day Saints a "bishop" occupies the office that in an Anglican
   church would be occupied by priest.

   Also, episcopal polity is not usually a simple chain of command.
   Instead, some authority may be held, not only by synods and colleges of
   bishops, but by lay and clerical councils. Further, patterns of
   authority are subject to a wide variety of historical rights and
   honours which may cut across simple lines of authority.

Overview of episcopal churches

   Episcopal churches are churches that use a hierarchy of bishops that
   regard themselves as being in an unbroken, personal Apostolic
   succession.

   Episcopal is also commonly used to distinguish between the various
   organizational structures of denominations. For instance, the word
   “presbyterian” (from the Greek πρεσβύτης, transliterated presbyteros)
   is used to describe a church governed by a hierarchy of assemblies of
   elected elders (see Presbyterian polity.) Similarly, “episcopal” is
   used to describe a church governed by bishops (Greek επίσκοπος,
   transliterated episcopos). Self-governed local churches
   (congregations), governed neither by elders nor bishops, are usually
   referred to as "congregational" (see Congregational polity.)

   More specifically, the title Episcopal (capitalized) is applied to
   several churches historically based within Anglicanism
   (Episcopalianism) including those still in communion with the Church of
   England. See Episcopal Church (disambiguation).

   Examples of specific episcopal churches include:
     * The Roman Catholic Church
     * The Eastern Orthodox Churches
     * The Oriental Orthodox Churches
     * The Assyrian Church of the East
     * The Old Catholic Church
     * The Mar Thoma Church
     * Numerous smaller Catholic churches
     * Churches of the Anglican Communion
     * Certain national churches of the Lutheran confession
     * Any of several churches listed in the article titled Episcopal
       Church (disambiguation)
     * The Charismatic Episcopal Church

   Some Lutheran churches practice congregational polity or a form of
   presbyterian polity. Others, including the Church of Sweden, practice
   episcopal polity; the Church of Sweden also counts its bishops among
   the historic episcopate.

   Many Methodist churches (see The United Methodist Church, among others)
   retain the form and function of episcopal polity. However since all
   trace their ordinations to an Anglican priest, John Wesley, it is
   generally considered that their bishops do not share in the historic
   episcopate. This situation may be corrected by 2012, with the United
   Methodist Church moving toward full communion with Canterbury. How
   formal Apostolic Succession will be extended to the Methodist
   Episcopacy without, at the same time, repudiating that Episcopacy or
   the current Methodist Orders has yet to be determined in full detail,
   however such a process is currently being examined by Methodists and
   Anglicans in bilateral discussions.

Etymology

   The word episcopal is derived from the Greek επίσκοπος, transliterated
   epískopos, which literally means "overseer"; the word, however, is used
   in religious contexts to refer to a bishop.
   The government of a bishop is typically symbolised by a cathedral
   church, such as the Orthodox Patriarch of Bulgaria's seat in Sofia
   The government of a bishop is typically symbolised by a cathedral
   church, such as the Orthodox Patriarch of Bulgaria's seat in Sofia

Before the Great Schism

   Rome and Constantinople were a single Church with an episcopal
   government, that is, one Church under local bishops and regional
   Patriarchs. Writing between ca. 85 and 110 a.d., St. Ignatius of
   Antioch, Patriarch of Antioch, was the earliest of the Church fathers
   to define the importance of episcopal government. Assuming Ignatius'
   view was the Apostolic teaching and practice, the line of succession
   was unbroken and passed through the four ancient Patriarchal sees
   (those local churches known to be founded by apostles), Rome,
   Jerusalem, Antioch and Alexandria. Rome was the leading Patriarchate of
   the ancient four by virtue of its founding by Sts. Peter and Paul and
   their martyrdoms there.

   Shortly after the Roman Emperor Constantine legalized Christianity in
   321, he also constructed an elaborate second capital of the Roman
   Empire located at Byzantium and renamed it Constantinople, in 324. The
   single Roman Empire was divided between these two autonomous
   administrative centers, Roman and Constantinopolitan, West and East,
   Latin speaking and Greek speaking. This remained the status quo through
   the fourth century.

   In the fifth century, the Western Roman Empire declined and was overrun
   by German and Frankish peoples. Although the city of Rome was in ruins,
   distant from the seat of secular power, and constantly harassed by
   invaders, the Roman Patriarchate remained the centre of the Western or
   Latin Church. Claiming the ancient primacy of Peter and the title of "
   Apostolic See," it remained the last court of episcopal appeal in
   serious matters for the whole Church, East and West.

   However, the centre of the civilized Roman world had shifted
   definitively to Constantinople, or New Rome, the capital of the Greek
   speaking Empire. Along with this shift, the effective administration of
   the Church in the Eastern Roman Empire also shifted. This practical
   eminence of Constantinople in the East is evident, first at the Council
   of Constantinople 381, and then ecumenically at the Council of
   Chalcedon in 451.

   Beginning with John the Faster, the Bishop of Constantinople (John IV,
   582-595) adopted as a formal title for himself the by-then-customary
   honorific, Ecumenical Patriarch ("pre-eminent father for the civilized
   world") over the strong objections of Rome: a title based on the
   political prestige of Constantinople and its economic and cultural
   centrality in the Empire. In the following years, Rome's appeals to the
   East were based on the unique authority of the Apostolic See and the
   primacy of Peter, over against the powers of councils as defended by
   the East (councils, for example, had endorsed that lofty title which
   Rome contested).

   The sometimes subtle differences between Eastern and Western
   conceptions of authority and its exercise produced a gradually widening
   rift between the Churches which continued with some occasional relief
   throughout the following centuries until the final rupture of the Great
   Schism (marked by two dates: 16 July, 1054, and the Council of Florence
   in 1439).
   Pope Pius IX convened the First Vatican Council that approved the dogma
   of Pope as the visible head of the church, prime bishop over a
   hierarchy of clergy and believers
   Pope Pius IX convened the First Vatican Council that approved the dogma
   of Pope as the visible head of the church, prime bishop over a
   hierarchy of clergy and believers

Roman Catholic Church

   The Catholic Church has an episcopate, with the Pope, who is the Bishop
   of Rome, at the top. The Catholic Church teaches that juridical
   oversight over the Church is not a power that derives from human
   ambition, but strictly from the authority of Christ which was given to
   his twelve apostles. The See of Rome, as the sole unbroken line of
   apostolic authority, descending from St. Peter (whom they call "prince
   and head of the apostles"), is a visible sign and instrument of
   communion among the college of bishops and therefore also of the local
   churches around the world. In communion with the world-wide college of
   bishops the Pope has all legitimate juridical and teaching authority
   over the whole Church. This authority given by Christ to Peter and the
   apostles is transmitted from one generation to the next by the power of
   the Holy Spirit, through the laying on of hands, from the Apostles to
   the bishops, and from bishops to priests and deacons, in unbroken
   succession.

Orthodox Churches

   The conciliar idea of episcopal government continues in the Eastern
   Orthodox Church. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the sixteen or so
   autocephalous primates are seen as collectively gathering around
   Christ, with other archbishops and bishops gathering around them, and
   so forth, in a model called "conciliar hierarchy". This is based in
   part on the vision in the book of Revelation of the 24 elders gathered
   around the throne of Christ, who are believed to represent the 12
   patriarchs of Israel and the 12 apostles of Jesus Christ. There is no
   single patriarch with exclusive authority comparable to the Pope in
   Rome.

Oriental Orthodox churches

   In the fifth century, several of the Oriental Churches separated from
   Rome and Constantinople. These were the (Nestorian) and Egyptian Coptic
   Orthodox (formerly considered Monophysite). Differences concerning the
   theological language for describing the person of Christ at the Council
   of Chalcedon caused these Churches to break full communion with the
   rest of the ancient Church. These Churches also trace their epicopal
   lineages to the ancient apostolic succession.

   Both the Greek and Coptic Orthodox churches have a bishop in
   Alexandria, both of whom trace their apostolic succession back to the
   Apostle Mark (the Coptic bishop claims the title of Pope). There are
   official ongoing efforts in recent times to heal this ancient breach.
   Already, the two recognize each other's baptisms, chrismations, and
   marriages, making intermarriage much easier.
   Archbishop Tutu was the Primate of the Anglican province of Southern
   Africa
   Archbishop Tutu was the Primate of the Anglican province of Southern
   Africa

Anglican Communion

   Anglicanism is the most prominent of Protestant Reformation traditions
   to lay claim to the historic episcopate through apostolic succession in
   terms comparable to the various Catholic and Orthodox Communions.
   Anglicans assert unbroken episcopal succession in and through the
   Church of England back to St. Augustine of Canterbury and to the first
   century Roman province of Britannia. Although it is impossible to
   pinpoint an exact moment for the arrival of Catholic Christianity in
   the British Isles, we know from the Venerable Bede and other early
   sources that the faith clearly was planted in Great Britain and Ireland
   independent of Rome and prior to Augustine (see Celtic Christianity).

   The legislation of Henry VIII effectively establishing the independence
   from Rome of the Church of England, did not alter its constitutional or
   pastoral structures. Royal supremacy was exercised through the extant
   legal structures of the church, whose leaders were bishops. Episcopacy
   was thus seen as a given of the Reformed Ecclesia Anglicana, and a
   foundation in the institution's appeal to ancient and apostolic
   legitimacy. What did change was that bishops were now seen to be
   ministers of the Crown for the spiritual government of its subjects.
   The influence of Richard Hooker was crucial to an evolution in this
   understanding in which bishops came to be seen in their more
   traditional role as ones who delegate to the presbyterate inherited
   powers, act as pastors to presbyters, and holding a particular teaching
   office with respect to the wider church.

   Anglican opinion has differed as to the way in which episcopal
   government is de jure divino. On the one hand, the seventeenth century
   divine, John Cosin, held that episcopal authority is jure divino, but
   that it stemmed from "apostolic practice and the customs of the
   Church...[not] absolute precept that either Christ or His Apostles gave
   about it" (a view maintained also by Hooker). In contrast, Lancelot
   Andrewes and others held that episcopal government is derived from
   Christ via the apostles. Regardless, both parties viewed the episcopacy
   as bearing the apostolic function of oversight, which both includes,
   and derives from the power of ordination, and is normative for the
   governance of the church. The practice of apostolic succession both
   ensures the legitimacy of the church's mission and establishes the
   unity, communion, and continuity of the local church with the universal
   church. This formulation, in turn, laid the groundwork for an
   independent view of the church as a "sacred society" distinct from
   civil society, which was so crucial for the development of local
   churches as non-established entities outside England, and gave direct
   rise to the Catholic Revival and disestablishmentarianism within
   England.

   Functionally, Anglican episcopal authority is expressed synodically,
   although individual provinces may accord their primate with more or
   less authority to act independently. Called variously "synods,"
   "councils," or "conventions," they meet under episcopal chairmanship.
   In many jurisdictions, conciliar resolutions that have been passed
   require episcopal assent and/or consent to take force. Seen in this
   way, Anglicans often speak of "the bishop-in-synod" as the force and
   authority of episcopal governance. Such conciliar authority extends to
   the standard areas of doctrine, discipline, and worship, but in these
   regards is limited by Anglicanism's tradition of the limits of
   authority. Those limits are expressed in Article XXI of the Thirty-Nine
   Articles of Religion, ratified in 1571 (significantly, just as the
   Council of Trent was drawing to a close), which held that "General
   Councils...may err, and sometimes have erred...wherefore things
   ordained by them as necessary to salvation have neither strength nor
   authority, unless it may be declared that they be taken out of holy
   Scripture." Hence, Anglican jurisdictions have traditionally been
   conservative in their approach to either innovative doctrinal
   development or in encompassing actions of the church as doctrinal (see
   lex orandi, lex credendi).

   Anglican synodical government, though varied in expression, is
   characteristically representative. Provinces of the Anglican Communion,
   their ecclesiastical provinces and dioceses are governed by councils
   consisting not only of bishops, but also representatives of the
   presbyterate and laity. The spread of increasingly democratic forms of
   representative governance has its origin in the formation of the first
   General Conventions of the American Episcopal Church in the 1780s,
   which established a "House of Bishops" and a "House of Deputies." In
   many jursidictions, there is also a third, clerical House. Resolutions
   may be voted on jointly or by each House, in the latter case requiring
   passage in all Houses to be adopted by the particular council.

   There is no international juridical authority in Anglicanism, although
   the tradition's common experience of episcopacy, symbolised by the
   historical link with the See of Canterbury, along with a common and
   complex liturgical tradition, has provided a measure of unity. This has
   been reinforced by the Lambeth Conferences of Anglican Communion
   bishops, which first met in 1867. These conferences, though they
   propose and pass resolutions, are strictly consultative, and the intent
   of the resolutions are to provide guideposts for Anglican jurisdictions
   - not direction. The Conferences also express the function of the
   episcopate to demonstrate the ecumenical and Catholic nature of the
   church.

   Churches that are members of the Anglican Communion are episcopal
   churches in polity, and some are named "Episcopal." However, some
   churches that self-identify as Anglican do not belong to the Anglican
   Communion, and not all episcopally-governed churches are Anglican. The
   Roman Catholic Church, the Old Catholic Churches (in full communion
   with, but not members of, the Anglican Communion), and the Eastern
   Orthodox churches are recognized, and also their bishops, by Anglicans.

Episcopal government in other denominations

   Some Protestant churches have adopted an episcopal form of government
   for practical, rather than historical, reasons. These include some
   Methodist churches and some of their offshoots. Methodists often use
   the term connectionalism or connectional polity in addition to
   "episcopal". Nevertheless, the powers of the Methodist episcopacy can
   be relatively strong and wide-reaching compared to traditional
   conceptions of episcopal polity. For example, in the United Methodist
   Church, bishops are elected for life, can serve up to two terms in a
   specific conference (three if special permission is given), are
   responsible for ordaining and appointing clergy to pastor churches,
   perform many administrative duties, preside at the annual sessions of
   the regional Conferences and at the quadrennial meeting of the
   world-wide General Conference, have authority for teaching and leading
   the church on matters of social and doctrinal import, and serve to
   represent the denomination in ecumenical gatherings. United Methodist
   bishops in the United States serve in their appointed conferences,
   being moved to a new "Episcopal Area" after 8 (or 12) years, until
   their mandated retirement at the end of the quadrenium following their
   sixty-sixth birthday.

   The Reformed Church of France, the Reformed Church of Hungary, and the
   Lutheran churches in mainland Europe may sometimes be called
   "episcopal". In these latter cases, the form of government is not
   radically different from the presbyterian form, except that their
   councils of bishops have hierarchical jurisdiction over the local
   ruling bodies to a greater extent than in most Presbyterian and other
   Reformed churches. As mentioned, the Lutheran Church in Sweden and
   Finland are exceptions, claiming apostolic succession in a pattern
   somewhat like the Anglican churches. Otherwise, forms of polity are not
   mandated in the Lutheran churches, as it is not regarded as having
   doctrinal significance. Old World Lutheranism, for historical reasons,
   has tended to adopt Erastian theories of episcopal authority (by which
   church authority is to a limited extent sanctioned by secular
   government). In the United States, the Lutheran churches tend to adopt
   a form of government more comparable to congregationalism.

   Although it never uses the term, The Church of Jesus Christ of
   Latter-day Saints (aka Mormons) is episcopal (rather than presbyterian
   or congregational) in the sense that it has a strict hierarchy of
   leadership from the local bishop up to a single prophet/president,
   believed to be personally authorized and guided by Jesus Christ. Local
   congregations (branches, wards, and stakes) have de jure boundaries by
   which members are allocated, and membership records are centralized.
   This system developed gradually from a more presbyterian polity (
   Joseph Smith's original title in 1830 was "First Elder") for pragmatic
   and doctrinal reasons, reaching a full episcopacy during the Nauvoo
   period (1839-1846).

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