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Glacier National Park (US)

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          There is also a non-adjoining national park in Canada by the
          same name. See Glacier National Park (Canada).

                 Glacier National Park
   IUCN Category II ( National Park)
   Glacier National Park
   Location:       Montana, USA
   Nearest city:   Kalispell, MT
   Coordinates:    48°48′0″N, 114°00′0″W
   Area:           1,013,572 acres (410,178 hectares)
   Established:    May 11, 1910
   Visitation:     1,925,101 (in 2005)
   Governing body: National Park Service

   Glacier National Park is located in the U.S. state of Montana,
   bordering the Canadian provinces of Alberta and British Columbia.
   Glacier National Park contains two mountain ranges, over 130 named
   lakes, more than 1,000 different species of plants and hundreds of
   species of animals. This vast pristine ecosystem, spread across
   1,584 mi² ( 4,101 km²), is the centerpiece of what has been referred to
   as the "Crown of the Continent Ecosystem", a region of protected land
   encompassing 16,000 mi² (44,000 km²). The famed Going-to-the-Sun Road,
   a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark, traverses through the
   heart of the park and crosses the Continental Divide, allowing visitors
   breathtaking views of the rugged Lewis and Livingston mountain ranges,
   as well as dense forests, alpine tundra, waterfalls and two large
   lakes. Along with the Going-to-the-Sun Road, five historic hotels and
   chalets are listed as National Historic Landmarks, and a total of 350
   locations are on the National Register of Historic Sites.
   St. Mary Lake is the second largest lake in the park.
   Enlarge
   St. Mary Lake is the second largest lake in the park.

   Glacier National Park borders Waterton Lakes National Park in Canada —
   the two parks are known as the Waterton-Glacier International Peace
   Park, and were designated as the world's first International Peace Park
   in 1932. Both parks were designated by the United Nations as Biosphere
   Reserves in 1976, and in 1995 as World Heritage sites.

History

   The Mountain Goat is the official symbol of Glacier National Park.
   Enlarge
   The Mountain Goat is the official symbol of Glacier National Park.

   According to archeological evidence, Native Americans first arrived in
   the Glacier area some 10,000 years ago. The earliest occupants with
   lineage to current tribes were the Salish, Flathead, Shoshone and
   Cheyenne. The Blackfeet arrived around the beginning of the 18th
   century and soon dominated the eastern slopes of what later became the
   park, as well as the Great Plains immediately to the east. The park
   region provided the Blackfeet shelter from the harsh winter winds of
   the plains, and supplemented their traditional bison hunts with other
   game meat. Today, the Blackfeet Indian Reservation borders the park in
   the east, while the Flathead Indian Reservation is located west and
   south of the park. When the Blackfeet Reservation was first established
   in 1855 by the Lame Bull Treaty, it included the eastern area of the
   current park up to the Continental Divide. To the Blackfeet, the
   mountains of this area, especially Chief Mountain and the region in the
   southeast at Two Medicine, were considered the "Backbone of the World"
   and were frequented during vision quests. In 1895, Chief White Calf of
   the Blackfeet authorized the sale of the mountain area, some
   800,000 acres (3,200 km²), to the U.S. government for $1.5 million.
   This established the current boundary between the park and the
   reservation.
   The Going-to-the-Sun Road as seen above McDonald Valley.
   Enlarge
   The Going-to-the-Sun Road as seen above McDonald Valley.

   While exploring the Marias River in 1806, the Lewis and Clark
   Expedition came within 50 miles (80 km) of the area that is now the
   park. A series of explorations after 1850 helped to shape the
   understanding of the area that later became the park. George Bird
   Grinnell came to the region in the late 1880's and was so inspired by
   the scenery that he spent the next two decades working to establish a
   national park. In 1901, Grinnell wrote a description of the region, in
   which he referred to it as the "Crown of the Continent", and his
   efforts to protect the land make him the premier contributor to this
   cause. A few years after Grinnell first visited, Henry L. Stimson and
   two companions, including a Blackfeet Indian, climbed the steep east
   face of Chief Mountain in 1892.

   In 1891, the Great Northern Railway crossed the Continental Divide at
   Marias Pass (5,213 ft/1,589 m), which is along the southern boundary of
   the park. In an effort to stimulate use of the railroad, the Great
   Northern soon advertised the splendors of the region to the public. The
   company lobbied the United States Congress, and in 1900, the park was
   designated as a forest preserve. Under the forest designation mining
   was still allowed, but was not commercially successful. Meanwhile,
   proponents of protecting the region kept up their efforts, and in 1910,
   under the influence of George Bird Grinnell, Henry L. Stimson and the
   railroad, a bill was introduced into the U.S. Congress which
   redesignated the region from a forest preserve to a national park. This
   bill was signed into law by President William Howard Taft on May 11,
   1910.

   The Great Northern Railway, under the supervision of president Louis W.
   Hill, built a number of hotels and chalets throughout the park in the
   1910s to promote tourism. These buildings were modeled on Swiss
   architecture as part of Hill's plan to portray Glacier as "America's
   Switzerland". Vacationers commonly took pack trips on horseback between
   the lodges or utilized the seasonal stagecoach routes to gain access to
   the Many Glacier area in the northeast.
   Road construction along the Going-to-the-Sun Road with Going to the Sun
   Mountain in background, 1932.
   Enlarge
   Road construction along the Going-to-the-Sun Road with Going to the Sun
   Mountain in background, 1932.

   The chalets, built between 1910 and 1913, included Belton, St. Mary,
   Sun Point, Two Medicine, Sperry, Granite Park, Cut Bank, and Gunsight
   Lake. The railway also built Glacier Park Lodge, adjacent to the park
   on its east side, and the Many Glacier Hotel on the east shore of
   Swiftcurrent Lake. Louis Hill personally selected the sites for all of
   these buildings, choosing each for a dramatically different scenic
   backdrop and a view from every room. Another developer, John Lewis,
   built the Lewis Glacier Hotel on Lake McDonald in 1913-1914. The Great
   Northern Railway bought the hotel in 1930 and renamed it Lake McDonald
   Lodge. The chalets were planned for backcountry access via horseback or
   by hiking. Today, only Sperry Chalet and Granite Park Chalet are still
   in operation, while a building formerly belonging to Two Medicine
   Chalet is now Two Medicine Store. The buildings constructed by the
   Great Northern Railway (Sperry and Granite Park Chalets, Many Glacier
   Hotel, and Two Medicine Store) are now on the list of National Historic
   Landmarks as is the Lake McDonald Lodge. In total, 350 structures
   within the park are listed on the National Register of Historic Sites.

   After the park was well established and visitors began to rely more on
   automobiles, work was begun on the 53 mile (85 km) long
   Going-to-the-Sun Road, completed in 1932. Also known simply as the Sun
   Road, the road bisects the park and is the only route that ventures
   deep into the park, going over the Continental Divide at Logan Pass
   (6,670 feet, 2033 m) at the midway point. The Sun Road is also listed
   on the National Register of Historic Places, and in 1985 was designated
   a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark. Another route, along
   the southern boundary between the park and National Forests is U.S.
   Route 2, which crosses the Continental Divide at Marias Pass and
   connects the towns of West Glacier and East Glacier. During the 1930s,
   the Civilian Conservation Corps developed many of the park's trails and
   campgrounds.

   In 2003, wildfires on the western side of the Continental Divide burned
   10% of Glacier National Park. There were also extensive fires in the
   surrounding forests.

Park management

   Map of Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park.
   Enlarge
   Map of Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park.

   Glacier National Park is managed by the National Park Service; park
   headquarters is in West Glacier, Montana. The National Park Service has
   the smallest staff of any major federal agency, yet oversees over
   84 million acres (340,000 km²). Visitation to Glacier National Park
   averages slightly less than 2 million visitors annually, however a
   relative few venture far from main roadways and hotels.

   Glacier National Park has an operating budget of $11,885,000 for fiscal
   year 2006. Most of this budget is used to provide a minimal number of
   staff and to make minor improvements to structures and roadways that
   are in immediate need of repair. More than 60% of the employees are
   employed for only a few months per year during the summer. Only 20% of
   the park's annual funding comes from entrance and campground fees. The
   remaining funding comes from federal tax dollars, grants and donations.
   According to a report presented to the U.S. House of Representatives in
   1999, the cost of deferred maintenance, not including repairs to roads
   and hotels, was $77 million. Restoring the five hotels in the park by
   bringing them up to the current fire codes and performing stabilization
   work, would cost another $100-135 million.

   The mandate of the National Park Service is to preserve and protect
   natural and cultural resources. The Organic Act of August 25, 1916,
   established the National Park Service as a federal agency. One major
   section of the Act has often been summarized as the "Mission", "...to
   promote and regulate the use of the...national parks...which purpose is
   to conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and the
   wild life therein and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such
   manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the
   enjoyment of future generations." In keeping with this mandate, hunting
   is illegal in the park, as are mining, logging and removal of natural
   or cultural resources. Additionally, oil and gas exploration and
   extraction are not permitted. In 1974, a wilderness study was submitted
   to congress which identified 95% of the acreage of the park as
   qualifing for wilderness designation. Unlike a few other parks, Glacier
   National Park has yet to be protected as wilderness, but National Park
   Service policy requires that identified areas listed in the report be
   managed as wilderness until congress renders a full decision.

   In anticipation of the 100th anniversary of the park in 2010, major
   reconstruction of the Going-to-the-Sun Road is underway, and temporary
   road closures are expected in the 2007 season. Some rehabilitation of
   major structures such as visitor centers and historic hotels, as well
   as improvements in wastewater treatment facilities and campgrounds, are
   expected to be completed by the anniversary date. Also planned are
   fishery studies for Lake McDonald, updates of the historical archives
   and restoration of trails.

Geography and geology

   Chief Mountain is an isolated peak on the easternmost boundary of the
   park.
   Enlarge
   Chief Mountain is an isolated peak on the easternmost boundary of the
   park.

   The park is bordered on the north by Waterton Lakes National Park in
   Alberta, and the Flathead Provincial Forest and Akamina-Kishinena
   Provincial Park in British Columbia. To the west, the north fork of the
   Flathead River forms the western boundary, while its middle fork is
   part of the southern boundary. The Blackfeet Indian Reservation
   provides most of the eastern boundary, and the Lewis and Clark and the
   Flathead National Forests form the southern and western boundary. The
   remote Bob Marshall Wilderness Complex is located in the two forests
   immediately to the south.

   The park contains a dozen large lakes and 700 smaller ones, but only
   131 lakes have been named. Lake McDonald, St. Mary Lake, Bowman Lake
   and Kintla Lake are the four largest lakes. Numerous smaller lakes,
   known as tarns, are located in cirques formed by glacial erosion. Some
   of these lakes, like Avalanche Lake and Cracker Lake, are colored an
   opaque turquoise by suspended glacial silt, which also causes a number
   of streams to run milky white. The lakes of Glacier National Park
   remain cold year round, with temperatures rarely above 50 degrees
   Fahrenheit (10 °C) at their surface. Cold water lakes such as these
   support little plankton growth, ensuring that the lake waters are
   remarkably clear. The lack of plankton, however, lowers the rate of
   pollution filtration, and pollutants have a tendency to linger longer.
   Consequently, the lakes are considered environmental "bellwethers" as
   they can be quickly affected by even minor increases in pollutants.

   Two hundred waterfalls are scattered throughout the park, however,
   during dryer times of the year, many of these are reduced to a trickle.
   The largest falls include those in the Two Medicine region, McDonald
   Falls in the McDonald Valley and Swiftcurrent Falls in the Many Glacier
   area, which is easily observable and close to the Many Glacier Hotel.
   One of the tallest waterfalls is Bird Woman Falls, which drops 492 feet
   (149 m) from a hanging valley beneath the north slope of Mount Oberlin.
   Bird Woman Falls can be easily seen from the Going-to-the-Sun Road.

   The rocks found in the park are primarily sedimentary in origin, having
   been laid down in shallow seas over 1.6 billion to 800 million years
   ago. During the formation of the Rocky Mountains the Lewis Overthrust,
   commencing 170 million years ago, moved an enormous region of rocks
   three miles (4.8 km) thick and 160 miles (257 km) long, eastward more
   than 50 miles (80 km). This resulted in older rocks being displaced
   over newer ones, and today the overlying Proterozoic rocks are over
   1.4 billion years older than the underlying Cretaceous age rocks.
   Landsat 7 image of Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park. The Rocky
   Mountain Front formed by the Lewis Overthrust fault rises dramatically
   above the Great Plains on the right.
   Enlarge
   Landsat 7 image of Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park. The Rocky
   Mountain Front formed by the Lewis Overthrust fault rises dramatically
   above the Great Plains on the right.

   One of the most dramatic evidences of this overthrust is visible in the
   form of Chief Mountain, an isolated peak on the edge of the eastern
   boundary of the park rising 4,500 feet (1,371 m) above the Great
   Plains. There are seven mountains in the park over 10,000 feet
   (3,050 m) in elevation, with Mount Cleveland (10,466 ft/3,190 m) being
   the tallest. Appropriately named Triple Divide Peak sends waters
   towards the Pacific Ocean, Hudson Bay, and Gulf of Mexico watersheds,
   and can effectively be considered to the be the apex of the North
   American continent, although the mountain is only 8,020 feet (2,444 m)
   above sea level.

   The rocks in Glacier National Park are the best preserved Proterozoic
   sedimentary rocks in the world, and have proved to be some of the
   world's most fruitful sources for records of early life. Sedimentary
   rocks of similar age located in other regions have been greatly altered
   by mountain building and other metamorphic changes, and consequently
   fossils are less common and more difficult to observe. The rocks in the
   park preserve such features as millimeter-scale lamination, ripple
   marks, mud cracks, salt-crystal casts, raindrop impressions, oolites
   and other sedimentary bedding characteristics. Six fossilized species
   of Stromatolites, which were early organisms consisting primarily
   blue-green algae, have been documented and dated at about 1 billion
   years.The discovery of the Appekunny Formation, a well preserved rock
   stratum in the park, pushed back the established date for the
   origination of animal life a full billion years. This rock formation
   has bedding structures which are believed to be the remains of the
   earliest identified metazoan (animal) life on Earth.

Glaciers

   Glacier National Park is dominated by mountains which were carved into
   their present shapes by the huge glaciers of the last ice age; these
   glaciers have largely disappeared over the 15,000 years. Evidence of
   widespread glacial action is found throughout the park in the form of
   U-shaped valleys, glacial cirques, aretes and large outflow lakes
   radiating like fingers from the base of the highest peaks. Since the
   end of the ice ages, various warming and cooling trends have occurred.
   The last recent cooling trend was during the Little Ice Age which took
   place approximately between 1550 and 1850. During the Little Ice Age,
   the glaciers in the park expanded and advanced, although to nowhere
   near as great an extent as they had during the Ice Age. Coincidentally,
   the park region was first explored in detail near the end of the Little
   Ice Age and a systematized survey began in which the number and size of
   glaciers was documented on maps and by photographic evidence. Much of
   this late 19th century work, however, was undertaken to lure tourism
   into the region or to search for mineral wealth, not out of a
   particular desire to document glaciers.

   During the middle of the 20th century, examination of the maps and
   photographs from the previous century provided clear evidence that the
   150 glaciers known to have existed in the park a hundred years earlier
   had greatly retreated, and in many cases disappeared altogether. Repeat
   photography of the glaciers, such as the pictures taken of Grinnell
   Glacier between 1938 and 2005 as shown, help to provide visual
   confirmation of the extent of glacier retreat.


                             1938 1981 1998 2005

   In the 1980's, the U.S. Geological Survey began a more systematic study
   of the remaining glaciers, which continues to the present day. By 2005,
   only 27 glaciers remained, and scientists generally agree that if the
   current greenhouse warming continues, all the glaciers in the park will
   be gone by 2030 (or 2021 when taking amplified feedback into account).
   This glacier retreat follows a worldwide pattern that has accelerated
   even more since 1980. The extensive glacier retreat that has been
   observed in Glacier National Park, as well as in other regions
   worldwide, is a key indicator of climatic changes on a worldwide scale.
   All evidence indicates that the demise of glacier ice is indicative of
   global warming. Without a major climatic change in which cooler and
   moister weather returns and persists, the mass balance (accumulation
   rate versus melting rate) of glaciers will continue to be negative and
   the glaciers will eventually disappear, leaving behind only barren
   rock.

   After the end of the Little Ice Age in 1850, the glaciers in the park
   retreated moderately until the 1910s. Between 1917 and 1926, the
   retreat rate rose rapidly and continued to accelerate through the
   1930s. A slight cooling trend from the 1940s until 1979, helped to slow
   the rate of retreat and in a few examples some glaciers even advanced a
   few tens of meters. However, during the 1980s, the glaciers in the park
   began a steady period of loss of glacial ice, which continues into the
   2000s. In 1850, the glaciers in the region near Blackfoot and Jackson
   Glaciers covered 5,337 acres (21.6 km²), but by 1979, the same region
   of the park had glacier ice covering only 1,828 acres (7.4 km²).
   Between 1850 and 1979, 73 percent of the glacial ice had melted away.
   At the time the park was created, Jackson Glacier was part of Blackfoot
   Glacier, but the two separated into different glaciers by 1939.

   The impact of glacier retreat on the park's ecosystems is not fully
   known, but cold water dependent plant and animal species could suffer
   due to a loss of habitat. Reduced seasonal melting of glacial ice may
   also affect stream flow during the dry summer and fall seasons,
   reducing water table levels and increasing the risk of forest fires.
   The loss of glaciers will also reduce the aesthetic visual appeal that
   glaciers provide to visitors.

Climate

   Many areas are only accessible during the summer, and possibly the late
   spring and early fall, depending on snowfall and elevation. Rainfall is
   frequent in the tourist season during the summer and may persist for
   days, averaging two to three inches (5—7.6 cm) each month. Snowfall can
   occur at any time of the year, even in the summer, and especially at
   higher altitudes. Visiting in the early summer is a way to avoid some
   but not all of the wet weather. In the spring, however, the nights and
   early mornings will be substantially cooler, and high-elevation trails,
   including the popular Hidden Lake Trail at Logan Pass, may still be
   snow covered. Thunderstorms are common all summer, and normal safety
   precautions for lightning and hail should be taken. The mountainous
   terrain ensures that tornadoes are very rare. The winter can bring
   prolonged cold waves, especially on the eastern side of the Continental
   Divide. Snowfalls are significant over the course of the winter, with
   the largest accumulation occurring in the west. During the tourist
   season daytime high temperatures average in the 60's and 70's °F (15 to
   25°C), and nighttime lows usually drop into the 40's (7°C).
   Temperatures in the high country may be much cooler. In the lower
   valleys, on the other hand, daytime highs over 90°F (32°C) are not
   unusual.
   The Big Drift covering the Going-to-the-Sun Road as photographed on
   March 23, 2006.
   Enlarge
   The Big Drift covering the Going-to-the-Sun Road as photographed on
   March 23, 2006.

   Rapid temperature changes have been noted in the region, and in
   Browning, Montana, which is just east of the park in the Blackfeet
   Indian Reservation, a world record temperature drop of 100 degrees
   Fahrenheit (56 °C) in only 24 hours occurred on the night of January
   23—24, 1916, when thermometers plunged from 44°F to -56°F (7 to -49°C).

   Glacier National Park has a highly regarded global climate change
   research program. Based in West Glacier, with its main headquarters in
   Bozeman, Montana, the U.S. Geological Survey has performed scientific
   research on specific climate change studies since 1992. In addition to
   the study of the retreating glaciers, research performed includes
   forest modeling studies in which fire ecology and habitat alterations
   are analyzed. Additionally, changes in alpine vegetation patterns are
   documented, watershed studies in which stream flow rates and
   temperatures are recorded frequently at fixed gauging stations, and
   atmospheric research in which UV-B radiation, ozone and other
   atmospheric gases are analyzed over time. The research compiled all
   contribute to a broader understanding of climate changes in the park.
   The data collected, when compared to other facilities scattered around
   the world, help to correlate these climatic changes on a global scale.

   Glacier is considered to have excellent air and water quality. No major
   areas of dense human population exist anywhere near the region and
   industrial effects are minimized due to a scarcity of factories and
   other potential contributors of pollutants. However, the sterile and
   cold lakes found throughout the park are easily contaminated by
   airborne pollutants that fall whenever it rains or snows, and some
   evidence of these pollutants have been found in park waters. The
   pollution level is currently viewed as negligible, and the park lakes
   and waterways have a water quality rating of A-1, the highest rating
   given by the state of Montana.

Wildlife and ecology

Flora

   Beargrass is a tall flowering plant commonly found throughout the park.
   Enlarge
   Beargrass is a tall flowering plant commonly found throughout the park.

   Glacier is part of a large preserved ecosystem collectively known as
   the "Crown of the Continent Ecosystem", all of which is primarily
   untouched wilderness of a pristine quality. Virtually all the plants
   and animals which existed at the time white explorers first entered the
   region are present in the park today.

   A total of over 1,132 plant species have been identified parkwide. The
   predominantly coniferous forest is home to various species of trees
   such as the Engelmann spruce, Douglas fir, subalpine fir, limber pine
   and western larch, which is a deciduous conifer, producing cones but
   losing its needles each fall. Cottonwood and aspen are the more common
   deciduous trees and are found at lower elevations, usually along lakes
   and streams. The timberline on the eastern side of the park is almost
   800 feet (250 m) lower than on the western side of the Continental
   Divide, due to exposure to the colder winds and weather of the Great
   Plains. West of the Continental Divide, the forest receives more
   moisture and is more protected from the winter, resulting in a more
   densely populated forest with taller trees. Above the forested valleys
   and mountain slopes, alpine tundra conditions prevail, with grasses and
   small plants eking out an existence in a region that enjoys as little
   as three months without snow cover. Thirty species of plants are found
   only in the park and surrounding National Forests. Beargrass, a tall
   flowering plant, is commonly found near moisture sources, and is
   relatively widespread during July and August. Wildflowers such as
   monkeyflower, glacier lily, fireweed, balsamroot and Indian paintbrush
   are also common.

   The forested sections fall into three major climatic zones. The west
   and northwest are dominated by spruce and fir and the southwest by
   redcedar and hemlock; the areas east of the Continental Divide are a
   combination of mixed pine, spruce, fir and prairie zones. The
   cedar-hemlock groves along the Lake McDonald valley are the easternmost
   examples of this Pacific climatic ecosystem.

   Whitebark pine communities have been heavily damaged due to the effects
   of blister rust, a non native fungus. In Glacier and the surrounding
   region, 30% of the Whitebark pine trees have died and over 70% of the
   remaining trees are currently infected. The Whitebark pine provides a
   high fat pine cone seed, commonly know as the pine nut, that is a
   favorite food of red squirrels and Clark's nutcracker. Both grizzlies
   and black bears are known to raid squirrel caches of the pine nuts, and
   it is one of the bears' favorite foods. Between 1930 and 1970, efforts
   to control the spread of blister rust were unsuccessful, and continued
   destruction of whitebark pines appears likely, with attendant negative
   impacts on dependent species.

Fauna

   The Grizzly bear is a threatened species; approximately 300 are
   believed to exist in the park.
   Enlarge
   The Grizzly bear is a threatened species; approximately 300 are
   believed to exist in the park.

   Virtually all the historically known plant and animal species, with the
   exception of the bison and woodland caribou, are present, providing
   biologists an intact ecosystem for plant and animal research. Two
   threatened species of mammals, the grizzly bear and the Canadian lynx,
   are found in the park. Although their numbers remain at historical
   levels, both are listed as threatened because in virtually every other
   region of the U.S. outside of Alaska, they are either extremely rare or
   absent from their historical range. On average, one or two bear attacks
   on humans occur each year; since the creation of the park in 1910,
   there have been a total of 10 bear related deaths. The number of
   grizzlies and lynx in the park is not known for certain, but park
   biologists believe that there are slightly less than 350 grizzlies
   parkwide, and a study commenced in 2002 indicated that there were at
   least 15 lynx in the eastern sections of the park. An estimated 800
   black bears are believed to exist parkwide. The black bear is less
   aggressive than the grizzly and a recent study using DNA to identify
   hair samples indicated that there are about six times as many black
   bears as there are grizzlies. Other large mammals such as the mountain
   goat (the official park symbol), bighorn sheep, moose, elk, mule deer,
   and white-tailed deer, coyote and the rarely seen mountain lion, are
   either plentiful or common. Unlike in Yellowstone National Park, which
   commenced a wolf reintroduction program in the 1990's, wolves have
   existed almost continuously in Glacier. 62 species of mammals in all
   have been documented including wolverine, badger, river otter,
   porcupine, mink, marten, fisher, six species of bats and numerous other
   smaller mammals.

   A total 260 species of birds have been recorded, with raptors such as
   the threatened bald eagle and the non-threatened golden eagle,
   peregrine falcon, osprey and several species of hawks residing year
   round. The harlequin duck is a colorful species of waterfowl found in
   the lakes and waterways. The great blue heron, tundra swan, Canada
   goose and American wigeon are species of waterfowl more commonly
   encountered in the park. Great horned owl, Clark's nutcracker,
   Steller's jay, pileated woodpecker and cedar waxwing reside in the
   dense forests along the mountainsides, and in the higher altitudes, the
   ptarmigan, timberline sparrow and rosy finch are the most likely to be
   seen. The Clark's nutcracker is less plentiful than in past years due
   to the reduction in the number of whitebark pines.

   Because of the colder climate, ectothermic reptiles are all but absent,
   with two species of garter snakes and the western painted turtle being
   the only three reptile species proven to exist. Similarly, only six
   species of amphibians are documented, although those species exist in
   large numbers. After a forest fire in 2001, a few park roads were
   temporarily closed the following year to allow thousands of Western
   toads to migrate to other areas.

   Glacier is also home to the endangered bull trout which is illegal to
   possess and must be returned to the water if caught inadvertently. A
   total of 23 species of fish reside in park waters and native game fish
   species found in the lakes and streams include the cutthroat trout,
   northern pike, mountain whitefish, Kokanee salmon and grayling.
   Introduction in previous decades of Lake trout and other non–native
   fish species have greatly impacted some native fish populations,
   especially the bull trout and west slope cutthroat trout.

Fire ecology

   Wildfires burned 10% of the park in 2003.
   Enlarge
   Wildfires burned 10% of the park in 2003.

   Forest fires were viewed for many decades as a threat to protected
   areas such as forests and parks. As a better understanding of fire
   ecology developed after the 1960's, forest fires were understood to be
   a natural part of the ecosystem. The earlier policies of suppression
   resulted in the accumulation of dead and decaying trees and plants
   which would normally have been reduced had fires been allowed to burn.
   Many species of plants and animals actually need wildfires to help
   replenish the soil with nutrients and to open up areas that allow
   grasses and smaller plants to thrive. Glacier National Park has a fire
   management plan which ensures that human caused fires are generally
   suppressed as they always have been. In the case of natural fires, the
   fire is monitored and suppression is dependent on the size and threat a
   fire may pose to human safety and structures. Major fires that require
   the assistance of other resources are coordinated through the National
   Interagency Fire Centre.

   Increased population and the growth of suburban areas near parklands,
   has led to the development of what is known as Wildland Urban Interface
   Fire Management, in which the park cooperates with adjacent property
   owners in improving safety and fire awareness. This approach is common
   to many other protected areas. As part of this program, houses and
   structures near the park are designed to be more fire resistant. Dead
   and fallen trees are removed from near places of human habitation,
   reducing the available fuel load and the risk of a catastrophic fire,
   and advance warning systems are developed to help alert property owners
   and visitors about forest fire potentials during a given period of the
   year. In 2003, 136,000 acres (550 km²) burned in the park after a five
   year drought and a summer season of almost no precipitation. This was
   the most acreage transformed by fire since the creation of the park in
   1910.

Recreation

   Glacier is distant from major cities, and the closest airport is at
   Kalispell, Montana, southwest of the park. Amtrak trains stop at East
   and West Glacier. A fleet of 1930s red tour buses, called jammers,
   offer tours on all the main roads in the park. The tour buses were
   rebuilt in 2001 to run on propane, to lessen their environmental
   impact. Small wooden tour boats, some dating back to the 1920s, operate
   on several of the larger lakes.

   Hiking is a popular activity in the park. Over half of the visitors to
   the park report taking a hike on the park's nearly 700 miles (1,126 km)
   of trails. 110 miles (177 km) of the Continental Divide National Scenic
   Trail spans most of the distance of the park north to south, with a few
   alternate routes at lower elevations if high altitude passes are closed
   due to snow. Due to the presence of bears and other large mammals, dogs
   are not permitted on any trails in the park, though they are permitted
   at front country campsites that can accessed by a vehicle, and along
   paved roads.
   Two Medicine Lake with Sinopah Mountain.
   Enlarge
   Two Medicine Lake with Sinopah Mountain.

   Several day hiking options are available in the following areas:
     * Lake McDonald
     * Logan Pass
     * Many Glacier
     * St. Mary Lake
     * Two Medicine
     * North Fork of the Flathead River
     * Goat Haunt

   Backcountry camping is allowed at campsites along the trails. A permit
   is required, which can be obtained from certain visitor centers or
   arranged for in advance. The backcountry is usually closed in most
   areas until early June due to the potential risk of avalanches and many
   trails at higher altitudes are snow packed until July. The major
   campgrounds that allow vehicle access are found throughout the park,
   most of which are near one of the larger lakes. The campground at St.
   Mary and at Apgar are open year round, but conditions are considered
   primitive in the off-season, as the restroom facilities are closed and
   there is no running water. All campgrounds with vehicle access are
   usually open from mid June until mid September. Guide services and
   shuttle services are also available.

   Fishing is a popular activity in the park and some of the finest fly
   fishing in North America can be found in the streams that flow through
   the park. Though the park requires that those fishing understand the
   regulations, no permit is required to fish the waters within the park
   boundary. The endangered bull trout must be released immediately back
   to the water if caught, otherwise, the regulations on limits of catch
   per day are liberal.

   Winter recreation activities in Glacier are limited. Snowmobiling is
   illegal in the park, but cross-country skiing is permitted in the lower
   altitude valleys on the east and western sides of the park.
   The view from the Red Rock Falls hiking trail near Many Glacier
   Enlarge
   The view from the Red Rock Falls hiking trail near Many Glacier
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