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Great Moravia

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   Great Moravia was a Slavic empire existing in Central Europe between
   833 and the early 10th century. Its core territory laid on both sides
   of the Morava river, in present-day Slovakia, the Czech Republic and
   Austria.

   The Empire was founded when Prince Mojmír I unified by force the
   neighboring Principality of Nitra with his own Moravian Principality in
   833. Unprecedented cultural development resulted from the mission of
   Saints Cyril and Methodius, who came during the reign of Prince
   Rastislav in 863. The Great Moravian Empire reached its greatest
   territorial extent under King Svatopluk I (871-894). Weakened by
   internal struggle and frequent wars with the Frankish Empire, Great
   Moravia was ultimately overrun by Magyar invaders in the early 10th
   century and its remnants were later divided between the Kingdom of
   Hungary, Bohemia, Poland, and the Holy Roman Empire.

Name

   The designation "Great Moravia" - "Ἡ Μεγάλη Μοραβία" originally stems
   from the work De Administrando Imperio written by the Byzantine Emperor
   Constantine VII Porphyrogenitos around 950.

   The word "Moravia" did not refer only to present-day Moravia, but to a
   country situated on both sides of the Morava river, whose (currently
   unknown) capital was also plausibly called Morava. The adjective
   "Great" nowadays denotes Moravia plus the annexed territories. In De
   Administrando Imperio, it may have rather meant "distant", because
   Byzantine texts used to distinguish between two countries of the same
   name using the attribute "little" for the territory closer to the
   Byzantine Empire (such as the Morava rivers in Serbia) and "great" for
   the more distant territory (such as the Morava river between Moravia
   and Slovakia).

   The names of Great Moravia in other languages are Велья Морава in Old
   Church Slavonic, Veľká Morava in Slovak, Velká Morava in Czech, and
   Magna Moravia in Latin.

   The use of the term (Great) Slovak Empire instead of Great Moravia is
   promoted by some Slovak authors who try to define it as an early Slovak
   state. This term has not been adopted by mainstream historians, though
   it has to be said, that at the break of the 9th century there have not
   been a great difference in culture and language between the peoples of
   today's Morava (in the Czech republic) and Slovakia.

History

Foundation

   A kind of predecessor of Great Moravia was Samo's Empire, encompassing
   the territories of Moravia, Slovakia, Lower Austria and probably
   extending also to Bohemia, Sorbia at the Elbe, and temporarily to
   Carinthia between 623 and 658. Although this tribal confederation
   plausibly did not survive its founder, it created favorable conditions
   for formation of the local Slavic aristocracy.

   In the late 8th century, the Morava river basin and western Slovakia,
   inhabited by the Slavs and situated at the Frankish border, flourished
   economically. Construction of numerous river valley settlements as well
   as hill forts indicates that political integration was driven by
   regional strongmen protected by their armed retinues. The so-called
   Blatnica-Mikulčice culture, partially inspired by the contemporaneous
   Western European and Avar art, arose from this economic and political
   development. In the 790s, the Slavs settled on the middle Danube
   overthrew the Avar yoke in connection with Charlemagne's campaigns
   against the Avars. Further centralization of power and progress in
   creation of state structures of the Slavs living in this region
   followed.

   As a result, two major states emerged: the Moravian Principality
   originally situated in present-day southeastern Moravia and westernmost
   Slovakia (with the probable centre in Mikulčice) and the Principality
   of Nitra, located in present-day western and central Slovakia (with the
   centre in Nitra). The Moravian Principality was mentioned for the first
   time in Frankish sources in 822. Its ruler Mojmír I supported Christian
   missionaries coming from Passau and he also arguably accepted Frankish
   formal suzerainty. Nitra was ruled by Prince Pribina, who, although
   probably still a pagan himself, built the first Christian church in
   Slovakia ( 828). In 833, Mojmír I ousted Pribina from Nitra and the two
   principalities became united under the same ruler. Excavations revealed
   that at least two Nitrian castles ( Pobedim and Čingov) were destroyed
   during the conquest. But Pribina with his family and retinue escaped to
   the Franks and their king Louis the German granted him the Balaton
   principality.

After unification

   Rastislav as an Orthodox Saint (modern depiction)
   Enlarge
   Rastislav as an Orthodox Saint (modern depiction)

   What modern historians and Constantine VII designate as "Great" Moravia
   arose in 833 from the above mentioned Mojmír's conquest of the
   Principality of Nitra. In 846, Mojmír I was succeeded by his nephew
   Rastislav (846-870). Although he was originally chosen by Frankish king
   Louis the German, the new prince pursued an independent policy. After
   stopping a Frankish attack in 855, he also sought to weaken influence
   of Frankish priests preaching in his realm. Rastislav asked the
   Byzantine Emperor Michael III to send teachers who would interpret the
   Christianity in the Slavic vernacular. Upon this request, two brothers,
   Byzantine officials and missionaries Saints Cyril and Methodius came in
   863. Cyril developed the first Slavic alphabet and translated the
   Gospel into the Old Church Slavonic language. Texts translated or
   written by Cyril and Methodius are considered to be the oldest
   literature in the Slavic languages. Rastislav was also preoccupied with
   security and administration of his state. Numerous fortified castles
   built thorough the country are dated to his reign and some of them
   (e.g. Devín Castle) are mentioned in connection with Rastislav by
   Frankish chronicles.

   During Rastislav's reign, the Principality of Nitra was given to his
   nephew Svatopluk as an appanage. The rebellious prince allied himself
   with the Franks and overthrew his uncle in 870. The beginning of
   Svatopluk I’s reign was turbulent as his former Frankish allies refused
   to leave the western part of his empire. The young prince was even
   taken captive by the Franks and the country rallied around Slavomír who
   led an uprising against the invaders in 871. Released Svatopluk finally
   took over the command of the insurgents and drove the Franks from Great
   Moravia. In the subsequent years, he successfully defended independence
   of his realm from Eastern Francia and subjected many neighboring lands.
   As the first Great Moravian leader, Svatopluk I (871-894) assumed the
   title of the king (rex). Under his reign, the Great Moravian Empire
   reached its greatest territorial extent, when not only Moravia and
   Slovakia but also present-day northern Hungary, Lower Austria, Bohemia,
   Silesia, Lusatia and southern Poland belonged to the empire. Svatopluk
   also withstood several attacks of proto-Magyar tribes and Bulgaria.

   In 880, the Pope John VIII issued the Bull Industriae Tuae, by which he
   set up an independent ecclesiastical province in Great Moravia with
   Archbishop Methodius as its head. He also named the German cleric
   Wiching the Bishop of Nitra, and Old Church Slavonic was recognized as
   the fourth liturgical language, besides Latin, Greek and Hebrew.

Decline and fall

   After the death of King Svatopluk in 894, his sons Mojmír II (894-906?)
   and Svatopluk II succeeded him as the King of Great Moravia and the
   Prince of Nitra respectively. However, they started to quarrel for
   domination of the whole Empire. Weakened by an internal conflict as
   well as by constant warfare with Eastern Francia, Great Moravia lost
   most of its peripheral territories. The proto- Magyar nomadic tribes
   also took advantage and invaded the Danubian Basin. Both Mojmír II and
   Svatopluk II probably died in battles with the proto-Magyars between
   904 and 907 because their names are not mentioned in written sources
   after 906.

   In three battles (July 4-5 and August 9, 907) near Bratislava, the
   Magyars routed Bavarian armies. Historians traditionally put this year
   as the date of breakup of the Great Moravian Empire. However, there are
   sporadic references to Great Moravia from later years (e.g. 924/925,
   942). The fate of northern and western parts of former Great Moravia in
   the 10th century is thus largely unclear.

   The western part of the Great Moravian core territory (present-day
   Moravia) was annexed by Bohemia after 955. In 999 it was taken over by
   Poland under Boleslaus I of Poland and returned to Bohemia in 1019. As
   for the eastern part of the Great Moravian core territory (present-day
   Slovakia), its southernmost parts were conquered by the Hungarian
   chieftain Lehel (Lél) around 925 and they fell under domination of the
   old Magyar dynasty of Arpads after 955. The rest remained under the
   rule of the local proto-Slovak aristocracy (western Slovakia maybe
   sharing the fate of Moravia from 955 to 999). In 1000 or 1001, all of
   Slovakia was taken over by Poland under Boleslaus I, and in 1030 the
   southern half of Slovakia was again taken over by Hungary. The rest of
   Slovakia had been progressively integrated into the Kingdom of Hungary
   from the end of the 11th century until the 14th century). Since the
   10th century, the population of this territory has been evolving into
   the present-day Slovaks.

List of rulers

    1. Mojmír I (833-846)
    2. Rastislav (846-870)
    3. Slavomír (871)
    4. Svatopluk I (871-894)
    5. Mojmír II (894-?906)

Territory and people

   Approximate borders of Great Moravia at its greatest extent on an older
   map (in 890 - 894)
   Enlarge
   Approximate borders of Great Moravia at its greatest extent on an older
   map (in 890 - 894)

   The territory of Great Moravia included:
     * 833-?907: today's Slovakia + current Moravia (ie. southeastern part
       of the Czech republic) + Lower Austria (territory north of the
       Danube)+ Hungary (territory north to Budapest and Theiss River,
       except for western Hungary)
     * 874-?: plus a strip of about 100-250km of present-day Poland above
       Slovak border ( Vistula Basin, Krakow)
     * 880-?: plus a strip of about 100-250km of present-day Poland above
       Czech border ( Silesia)
     * 880-896: plus remaining present-day Hungary east of the Danube
     * 880/883/884-894: plus the remaining present-day Hungary (up to
       Vienna)
     * 888/890-895: plus Bohemia
     * 890-897: plus Lusatia

   As for the history of Bohemia - annexed by Great Moravia for five to
   seven years (from 888/890 to 895) - the crucial year is 895, when the
   Bohemians broke away from the empire and became vassals of Arnulf of
   Carinthia. Independent Bohemia, ruled by the dynasty of Přemyslids,
   began to gradually emerge.

   The inhabitants of Great Moravia were designated "Slovene", which is an
   old Slavic word meaning the "Slavs". The same name was also used by
   (future) Slovenians and Slavonians at that time. People of Great
   Moravia are sometimes called "Moravian peoples" by Slavic texts, and
   "Sclavi" (i.e. the Slavs), "Winidi" (another name for the Slavs),
   "Moravian Slavs" or "Moravians" by Latin texts. The present-day terms "
   Slovaks" / "Slovakia" (in Slovak: Slováci / Slovensko) and " Slovenes"
   / "Slovenia" (in Slovene: Slovenci / Slovenija) arose later from the
   above "Slovene".

Towns and castles

   Ruins of a Great Moravian castle in Ducové
   Enlarge
   Ruins of a Great Moravian castle in Ducové

   According to Geographus Bavarus, 30 out of the 41 Great Moravian
   castles (civitates) were situated on the territory of present-day
   Slovakia and the remaining 11 in Moravia. These numbers are also
   corroborated by archaeological evidence. The only castles which are
   mentioned by name in written texts are Nitra (828), Devín Castle (today
   in Bratislava) (864), Bratislava (907), and Uzhhorod (in Ukraine)
   (903). Many other (for example Mikulčice and Staré Město in Moravia;
   Pobedim, Ducové, Trenčín, and Beckov in the Váh river valley; Svätý Jur
   near Bratislava; Ostrá skala in Orava; Čingov and Spišské Tomášovce in
   Spiš; Esztergom in Hungary; Gars-Thunau in Austria) were identified by
   excavations.

   Most Great Moravian castles were rather large hill forts, fortified by
   wooden palisades, stone walls and in some cases, moats. Most buildings
   were made of timber, but ecclesiastical and residential parts were made
   of stone. At least some churches (e.g. in Bratislava) were decorated by
   frescoes, plausibly painted by Italian masters since the chemical
   composition of colors was the same as in northern Italy. In Nitra and
   Mikulčice, several castles and settlements formed a huge fortified
   urban agglomeration. Other castles (e.g. Ducové) served as regional
   administrative centers, ruled by a local nobleman. Their form was
   probably inspired by Carolingian estates called curtis. The largest
   castles were usually protected by a chain of smaller forts. Forts (e.g.
   Beckov) also controlled trade routes and provided shelter for peasants
   in case of a military attack.

   Although location of the Great Moravian capital has not been safely
   identified, the fortified town of Mikulčice with its palace and 12
   churches is the most widely accepted candidate. Nitra, the second
   centre of the Empire, was ruled autonomously by the heir of the dynasty
   as an appanage. However, it is fair to note that early medieval kings
   spent a significant part of their lives campaigning and traveling
   around their realms due to the lack of reliable administrative
   capacities. It is thus very likely that they also resided from time to
   time in other important royal estates, such as Devín and Bratislava.

Culture

   Due to the lack of written documents, very little is known about the
   original Slavic religion and mythology. The territory of Great Moravia
   was originally evangelized by missionaries coming from the Frankish
   Empire or Byzantine enclaves in Italy and Dalmatia since the early 8th
   century (and sporadically earlier). The first known Christian church of
   the Western and Eastern Slavs was built in 828 by Pribina in his
   capital Nitra. The church, consecrated by Bishop Adalram of Salzburg,
   was built in a style similar to contemporaneous Bavarian churches,
   while architecture of two Moravian churches from the early 9th century
   (in Mikulčice and Modrá) indicates influence of Irish missionaries. The
   Church organization in Great Moravia was supervised by the Bavarian
   clergy until the arrival of Byzantine missionaries Saints Cyril and
   Methodius in 863.

   Foundation of the first Slavic bishopric (870), archbishopric (880),
   and monastery was the politically relevant outcome of the Byzantine
   mission initially devised by Prince Rastislav to strengthen his early
   feudal state. It is not known where the Great Moravian archbishop
   resided (a papal document mentions him as the archbishop of Moravia,
   Moravia being the name of a town), but there are several references to
   bishops of Nitra. Big three-nave basilicas unearthed in Mikulčice,
   Uherské Hradiště, Bratislava, and Nitra were obviously ecclesiastical
   centers of the country, but their very construction may have predated
   the Byzantine mission. Nitra and Uherské Hradiště are also sites where
   monastic buildings have been excavated. A church built at Devín Castle
   is clearly inspired by Byzantine churches in Macedonia (from where
   Cyril and Methodius came) and rotundas, particularly popular among
   Great Moravian nobles, also have their direct predecessors in the
   Balkans.
   An example of the Glagolitic script created by Saint Cyril for the
   mission in Great Moravia
   Enlarge
   An example of the Glagolitic script created by Saint Cyril for the
   mission in Great Moravia

   But yields of the mission of Cyril and Methodius extended beyond the
   religious and political sphere. The Old Church Slavonic became the
   fourth liturgical language of the Christian world, though its use in
   Great Moravia proper had gradually declined until it virtually vanished
   in the late Middle Ages. Its late form still remains the liturgical
   language of the Russian, Bulgarian, and Serbian Orthodox Church. Cyril
   also invented the Glagolitic alphabet, suitable for Slavic languages.
   He translated the Gospel and the first translation of the Bible into a
   Slavic language was later completed by his brother Methodius.

   Methodius wrote the first Slavic legal code, combining the local
   customary law with the advanced Byzantine law. Similarly, the Great
   Moravian criminal law code was not merely a translation from Latin, but
   it also punished a number of offenses originally tolerated by the
   pre-Christian Slavic moral standards yet prohibited by the Christianity
   (mostly related to sexual life). The canon law was simply adopted from
   the Byzantine sources.

   There are not many literary works that can be unambiguously identified
   as originally written in Great Moravia. One of them is Proglas, a
   cultivated poem in which Cyril defends the Slavic liturgy. Vita Cyrilli
   (attributed to Clement of Ohrid) and Vita Methodii (written probably by
   Methodius' successor Gorazd) are biographies with precious information
   about Great Moravia under Rastislav and Svatopluk I.

   The brothers also founded an academy, initially led by Methodius, which
   produced hundreds of Slavic clerics. A well-educated class was
   essential for administration of all early-feudal states and Great
   Moravia was no exception. Vita Methodii mentions bishop of Nitra as
   Svatopluk I’s chancellor and even Prince Koceľ of the Balaton
   Principality was said to master the Glagolitic script. Location of the
   Great Moravian academy has not been identified, but the possible sites
   include Mikulčice (where some styli have been found in an
   ecclesiastical building), Devín Castle (with a building identified as a
   probable school), and Nitra (with its Episcopal basilica and
   monastery). When Methodius’ disciples were expelled from Great Moravia
   in 885, they disseminated their knowledge (including the Glagolitic
   script) to other Slavic countries, such as Bulgaria, Croatia, and
   Bohemia. They created the Cyrillic alphabet, which became the standard
   alphabet in the Slavic Orthodox countries, including Russia. The Great
   Moravian cultural heritage survived in Bulgarian seminaries, paving the
   way for evangelization of Eastern Europe.

Legacy

   Destruction of the Great Moravian Empire was rather gradual. Since
   excavations of Great Moravian castles show continuity of their
   settlement and architectural style after the alleged disintegration of
   the Empire, local political structures must have remained untouched by
   the disaster. Another reason is that the originally nomad old Magyars
   lacked siege engines to conquer Great Moravian fortifications.
   Nevertheless, the core of Great Moravia was finally integrated into the
   newly established states of Bohemia and the Kingdom of Hungary.

   Great Moravian centers (e.g. Bratislava, Nitra, Zemplín) also retained
   their functions afterwards. As they became the seats of early Hungarian
   administrative units, the administrative division of Great Moravia was
   probably just adopted by new rulers. Social differentiation in Great
   Moravia reached the state of early feudalism, creating the social basis
   for development of later medieval states in the region. A significant
   part of the local aristocracy remained more or less undisturbed by the
   fall of Great Moravia and their descendants became nobles in the newly
   formed Kingdom of Hungary. Therefore, it is not surprising that many
   Slavic words related to politics, law, and agriculture were taken into
   the Hungarian language. The most obvious example of political
   continuity is the Principality of Nitra, which was ruled autonomously
   by heirs of the Arpads dynasty – a practice similar to that of the
   Mojmírs dynasty in Great Moravia. Similarly, the Church organization
   survived invasion of the pagan Magyars at least to some degree.

   Neither the demographic change was dramatic. As far as the graves can
   tell, there had been no influx of the Magyars into the core of former
   Great Moravia before 955. Afterwards, Magyar settlers appear in some
   regions of Southern Slovakia, but graves indicate a kind of cultural
   symbiosis (resulting in the common Belobrdo culture), not domination.
   Due to cultural changes, archaeologists are not able to identify the
   ethnicity of graves after the half of the 11th century (though it is
   usually possible to determine the ethnicity of a whole village). This
   is also why integration of central, eastern, and northern Slovakia into
   the Hungarian Kingdom is difficult to be documented by archeology, and
   written sources have to be used.

   The Byzantine double-cross thought to have been brought by Cyril and
   Methodius has remained the symbol of Slovakia until today and the
   Constitution of Slovakia refers to Great Moravia in its preamble.
   Interest about that period rose as a result of the national revival in
   the 19th century. Great Moravian history has been regarded as a
   cultural root of several Slavic nations in Central Europe (especially
   the Slovaks) and it was employed in vain attempts to create a single
   Czechoslovak identity in the 20th century.
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