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Hadrian's Wall

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Architecture; British
History 1500 and before (including Roman Britain)

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   Hadrian's Wall ( Latin: Vallum Hadriani) was a stone and turf
   fortification built by the Roman Empire across the width of Great
   Britain to prevent military raids by the tribes of (what is now)
   Scotland to the north, to improve economic stability and provide
   peaceful conditions in the Roman province of Britannia to the south, to
   physically mark the frontier of the Empire, and to separate the unruly
   Selgovae tribe in the north from the Brigantes in the south and
   discourage them from uniting.

   The name is also sometimes used jocularly as a synonym for the border
   between Scotland and England, although for most of its length the wall
   follows a line well south of the modern border — and neither the Scoti
   tribe nor the English lived in Britain at the time of the wall's
   construction.

   The wall was the northern border of the Empire in Britain for much of
   the Roman Empire's rule, and also the most heavily fortified border in
   the Empire. In addition to its use as a military fortification, it is
   thought that the gates through the wall would also have served as
   customs posts to allow trade taxation.

   A significant portion of the wall still exists, particularly the
   mid-section, and for much of its length the wall can be followed on
   foot. It is the most popular tourist attraction in Northern England,
   where it is often known simply as the Roman Wall. It was made a UNESCO
   World Heritage Site in 1987. English Heritage, a government
   organization in charge of managing the historic environment of England,
   describes it as "the most important monument built by the Romans in
   Britain".
   Sections of Hadrian's Wall remain near Greenhead and along the route,
   though other large sections have been dismantled over the years to use
   the stones for various nearby construction projects.
   Enlarge
   Sections of Hadrian's Wall remain near Greenhead and along the route,
   though other large sections have been dismantled over the years to use
   the stones for various nearby construction projects.

Dimensions

   Hadrian's Wall was 80 Roman miles (73 and a half Modern miles or 117
   kilometres) long, its width and height dependent on the construction
   materials which were available nearby: east of the river Irthing the
   wall was made from brick shaped stone and measured 10 Roman feet (9.7
   ft or 3 m) wide and 5 to 6 metres (16–20 ft) tall; west of the river
   the wall was made from turf and measured 6 metres (20 ft) wide and
   3.5 metres (11.5 ft) high. This does not include the wall's ditches,
   berms, and forts. The central section measured 8 Roman feet wide
   (7.8 ft or 2.4 m) on a 10 foot base.

Route

   Hadrian's Wall extended from the west from Wallsend on the River Tyne
   to the shore of the Solway Firth. The A69 and B6318 roads follow the
   course of the wall as it starts in Newcastle upon Tyne to Carlisle,
   then on round the northern coast of Cumbria. The Wall is entirely in
   England and south of the border with Scotland by 15 kilometres (9  mi)
   in the west and 110 kilometres (68 mi) in the east.

Hadrian

   Hadrian's Wall was built following a visit by Roman emperor Hadrian
   (AD 76–138) in AD 122. Hadrian was experiencing military difficulties
   in Britain, and from the peoples of various conquered lands across the
   Empire, including Egypt, Judea, Libya, Mauretania, and many of the
   peoples were conquered by his predecessor Trajan, so he was keen to
   impose order. However the construction of such an impressive wall was
   probably also a symbol of Roman power, both in occupied Britain and in
   Rome.

   Frontiers in the early empire were based more on natural features or
   fortified zones with a heavy military presence. Military roads or limes
   often marked the border, with forts and signal towers spread along them
   and it was not until the reign of Domitian that the first solid
   frontier was constructed, in Germania Superior, using a simple fence.
   Hadrian expanded on this idea, redesigning the German border by
   ordering a continuous timber palisade supported by forts behind it.
   Although such defences would not have held back any concerted invasion
   effort, they did physically mark the edge of Roman territory and went
   some way to providing a degree of control over who crossed the border
   and where.

   Hadrian reduced Roman military presence in the territory of the
   Brigantes and concentrated on building a more solid linear
   fortification to the north of them. This was intended to replace the
   Stanegate road which is generally thought to have served as the limes
   (the boundary of the Roman Empire) until then.

Construction

   Enlarge

   Construction probably started in 122 and was largely completed within
   ten years, with soldiers from all three of the occupying Roman legions
   participating in the work. The route chosen largely paralleled the
   nearby Stanegate road from Carlisle to Corbridge, which was already
   defended by a system of forts, including Vindolanda. The Wall in part
   follows the outcrop of a harder, more resistant igneous dolerite rock
   escarpment, known as the Great Whin Sill.

   The initial plan called for a ditch and wall with 80 small, gated
   milecastle fortlets every Roman mile holding a few dozen troops each,
   and pairs of evenly spaced intermediate turrets used for observation
   and signaling. The wall was initially designed to a width of 3 metres
   (10 ft) (the so-called "Broad Wall"). The height is estimated to have
   been around 5 or 6 metres (16–20 ft). Local limestone was used in the
   construction, except for the section to the west of Irthing where turf
   was used instead as there were no useful outcrops nearby. The turf wall
   was 6 metres wide (20 ft) and around 3.5 metres (11.5 ft) high.
   Milecastles in this area were also built from timber and earth rather
   than stone but turrets were always stone.
   Roman fort at Corstopitum, the northernmost settlement in the Roman
   Empire
   Enlarge
   Roman fort at Corstopitum, the northernmost settlement in the Roman
   Empire

   The milecastles were of three different designs, depending on which
   Roman legion built them — the Second, Sixth, and Twentieth Legions,
   whose inscriptions tell us were all involved in the construction.
   Similarly there are three different turret designs along the route. All
   were about 493 metres (539  yd) apart and measured 4.27 metres square
   (46.0  sq ft) internally.

   Construction was divided into lengths of about 5 miles (8 km). One
   group of each legion would create the foundations and build the
   milecastles and turrets and then other cohorts would follow, building
   the wall itself. Early in its construction the width of the wall was
   narrowed to 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) or even less (the "Narrow Wall"). The
   Broad Wall dimensions can be seen in some stretches of foundations and
   some milecastle walls — a handy reference for archaeologists trying to
   piece together the construction chronology.

   Within a few years it was decided to add a total of 14-17 (sources
   disagree) full-sized forts along the length of the wall, including
   Housesteads and Birdoswald, each holding between 500 and 1,000
   auxiliary troops (no legions were posted to the wall). The eastern end
   of the wall was extended further east from Pons Aelius (Newcastle) to
   Wallsend on the Tyne estuary. Some of the larger forts along the wall,
   such as Chesters and Housesteads, were built on top of the footings of
   milecastles or turrets, showing the change of plan. An inscription
   mentioning early governor Aulus Platorius Nepos indicates that the
   change of plans took place early on. Also some time still during
   Hadrian's reign (i.e., before AD 138) the wall west of the Irthing was
   rebuilt in sandstone to basically the same dimensions as the limestone
   section to the east.

   After the forts had been added (or possibly at the same time), the
   so-called Vallum was built on the southern side. It consisted of a
   large, flat-bottomed ditch 6 metres (20 ft) wide at the top and
   3 metres (10 ft) deep bounded by a berm on each side 10 metres (33 ft)
   wide. Beyond the berms were earth banks 6 metres (20 ft) wide and
   2 metres (6.5 ft) high. Causeways crossed the ditch at regular
   intervals. Initially the berm appears to have been the main route for
   transportation along the wall. The Vallum probably delineated a
   military zone rather than intending to be a major fortification, though
   the British tribes to the south were also sometimes a military problem.

   The Wall was thus part of a defensive system which, from north to south
   included:
     * a glacis and a deep ditch
     * a berm with rows of pits holding entanglements
     * the curtain wall itself
     * a later military road (the "Military Way")
     * the Vallum — two huge banks with a ditch between.

Roman-period names

   The Roman-period names of some of the Hadrian's Wall forts are known:
   Segedunum ( Wallsend), Pons Aelius ( Newcastle on Tyne), Condercum (
   Benwell Hill), Vindobala ( Halton Chesters), Hunnum ( Rutchester),
   Cilurvum ( Walwick Chesters), Procolita ( Carrowburgh), Borcovicum or
   Vercovicium ( Housesteads), Vindolanda ( Little Chesters), Aesica (
   Great Chesters), Magna ( Carvoran), Vindomora ( Ebchester), Corstopitum
   ( Corbridge), Habitancum ( Risingham), Bremenium ( Rochester), Ad Fines
   ( Chew Green) , and also Banna ( Birdoswald Fort), Milecastle 51,
   Alauna ( Maryport). Note how the modern names of many of these places
   include the suffix "chester", reflecting the presence of Roman castra.

   Arbeia was a supply fort behind the wall.

Garrison

   The wall was garrisoned by auxiliary (i.e., non-legionary) units of the
   army (non- citizens). Their numbers fluctuated throughout the
   occupation, but may have been around 9,000 strong in general, including
   infantry and cavalry. The new forts could hold garrisons of 500 men
   whilst cavalry units of 1,000 troops were stationed at either end. The
   total number of soldiers manning the early wall was probably greater
   than 10,000.

   They suffered serious attacks in 180, and especially between 196 and
   197 when the garrison had been seriously weakened, following which
   major reconstruction had to be carried out under Septimius Severus.
   After the harsh suppression of the tribes under Septimius, the region
   near the wall remained peaceful for most of the rest of the 3rd
   century. It is thought that many in the garrison may have married and
   integrated into the local community.
   Part of Hadrian's wall near Housesteads.
   Enlarge
   Part of Hadrian's wall near Housesteads.

After Hadrian

   In the months after Hadrian's death in 138, the new emperor, Antoninus
   Pius essentially abandoned the wall, though leaving it occupied in a
   support role, and began building a new wall in Scotland proper, about
   160 kilometres (100 mi) north, the Antonine Wall. This turf wall ran 40
   Roman miles (about 37.8 mi or 61 km) and had significantly more forts
   than Hadrian's Wall. Antonine was unable to conquer the northern tribes
   and so when Marcus Aurelius became emperor, he abandoned the Antonine
   Wall and occupied Hadrian's Wall once again in 164. It remained
   occupied by Roman troops until their withdrawal from Britain.

   In the late 4th century, barbarian invasions, economic decline, and
   military coups loosened the Empire's hold on Britain. By 410, the Roman
   administration and its legions were gone, and Britain was left to look
   to its own defences and government. The garrisons, by now probably made
   up mostly of local Britons who had nowhere else to go, probably
   lingered on in some form for generations. Archaeology is beginning to
   reveal that some parts of the Wall remained occupied well into the 5th
   century. But in time the wall was abandoned and fell into ruin. Over
   the centuries a large proportion of the stone was reused in other local
   buildings. This continued until the 20th century.

In fiction

   Sycamore Gap (the "Robin Hood Tree")
   Enlarge
   Sycamore Gap (the "Robin Hood Tree")
     * Hadrian's Wall was featured extensively in the movie King Arthur
       (which depicted the story of the people the Arthurian legends were
       supposedly based on). The one kilometre (0.6 mi) long replica,
       located in County Clare, Ireland, was the largest movie set ever
       built in that country, and took a crew of 300 construction workers
       four and a half months to build. The fort in the movie where Arthur
       and his Sarmatian "knights" were garrisoned was based on the Roman
       fort named Vindolanda, which was built around AD 80 just south of
       Hadrian's Wall in what is now called Chesterholm, in Northern
       England. In the movie, the fort is attached to the wall.

     * Sycamore Gap, a section of the wall between two crests just west of
       milecastle 38, is locally known as the "Robin Hood Tree". This
       location was featured in the 1991 film Robin Hood: Prince of
       Thieves.

     * The humorous 2003 book The Zombie Survival Guide ( ISBN
       1-4000-4962-8) by Max Brooks suggests that Hadrian's Wall was built
       in response to a zombie attack. Brooks writes that in AD 121,
       undead barbarian hordes descended upon the Romans and were driven
       back in the area where Hadrian's Wall was then built.

     * In the Roman Britain section of Blackadder: Back & Forth, Centurion
       Blackaddicus, Legionary Baldrickus and Georgius are part of the
       Roman forces defending Hadrian's Wall from the attacking Scots.

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