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History of Puerto Rico

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: North American History

   Puerto Rico
   Enlarge
   Puerto Rico

   The history of Puerto Rico began with the settlement of the archipelago
   of Puerto Rico by the Ortoiroid culture, sometime between 3000–2000 BC.
   Other tribes, such as the Igneri and Arawak Indians, populated the
   island between 120 and 1000 AD. At the time of Christopher Columbus's
   arrival in the New World, the dominant indigenous culture was that of
   the Taínos. The Taíno culture died out during the latter half of the
   16th century because of exploitation, war and diseases brought by the
   Spanish.

   Located in the northeastern Caribbean Sea, Puerto Rico was the key to
   the Spanish Empire since the early years of the exploration, conquest
   and colonization of the New World. The smallest of the Greater
   Antilles, Puerto Rico was a major military post during many wars
   between Spain and other European powers for control of the region
   during the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. The island was a
   stepping-stone in the passage from Europe to Cuba, Mexico, Central
   America, and the northern territories of South America. Throughout most
   of the 19th century and until the conclusion of the Spanish-American
   War, Puerto Rico and Cuba were the last two Spanish colonies in the New
   World and served as the final outposts in Spanish strategies to regain
   control of the American continents.

   In 1898, during the Spanish–American war, Puerto Rico was invaded and
   subsequently became a possession of the United States. The first part
   of the 20th century was marked by the struggle to obtain greater
   democratic rights from the United States. The Foraker Act of 1900,
   which established a civil government, and the Jones Act of 1917, which
   granted Puerto Ricans U.S. citizenship, paved the way for the drafting
   of Puerto Rico's Constitution and the establishment of democratic
   elections in 1952. However, the political status of Puerto Rico, a
   Commonwealth controlled by the U.S., remains an anomaly, more than 500
   years after the first Europeans settled the island.

Pre-colonial Puerto Rico

   Taíno village at Tibes Indigenous Ceremonial Center in Cuba
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   Taíno village at Tibes Indigenous Ceremonial Centre in Cuba

   The settlement of Puerto Rico began with the arrival of the Ortoiroid
   culture from the Orinoco region in South America. Some scholars suggest
   that their settlement dates back 4000 years. An archeological dig at
   the island of Vieques in 1990 found the remains of what is believed to
   be an Ortoiroid man (named Puerto Ferro man) which was dated to around
   2000 BC. The Ortoiroid were displaced by the Igneri, a peaceful tribe
   from the same region that arrived on the island between 120 and 400 AD.

   Between the seventh and eleventh century Arawak Indians are thought to
   have settled the island. During this time the Taíno culture developed,
   and by approximately 1000 the Taíno culture had become dominant. Taíno
   culture has been traced to the village of Saladero at the basin of the
   Orinoco River in Venezuela. They arrived at Puerto Rico by migrating
   across the Lesser Antilles. At the time of Columbus' arrival, an
   estimated 30-60 thousand Taíno Amerindians, led by cacique (chief)
   Agüeybaná, inhabited the island which they called Boriken, meaning "the
   great land of the valiant and noble Lord". The natives lived in small
   villages led by a cacique and subsisted on hunting, fishing and
   gathering of indigenous cassava root and fruits. When the Spaniards
   arrived in 1493, conflicts with raiding Carib Indians, who were moving
   up the Antilles chain, were taking place. The domination of the Taíno
   culture on the island was about to end as the Spanish arrival would
   mark the beginning of their extinction, however, their culture is
   strongly embedded in Puerto Rican culture today. Musical instruments
   such as maracas and güiro, the hammock, and words such as Mayagüez,
   Arecibo, iguana, huracán (hurricane) represent some examples of the
   legacy left by the Taíno culture in this world.

Spanish rule (1493–1898)

Beginning of colonization

   Christopher Columbus, Italian explorer credited with the discovery of
   Puerto Rico
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   Christopher Columbus, Italian explorer credited with the discovery of
   Puerto Rico

   Christopher Columbus set sail from Cádiz for his second voyage on
   September 25, 1493 with 17 ships and 1,200-1,500 men. On November 19,
   1493, he landed on the island, naming it San Juan Bautista in honour of
   Saint John the Baptist. The first settlement, Caparra, was founded on
   August 8, 1508 by Juan Ponce de León, a lieutenant under Columbus, who
   later became the first governor of the island. The following year, the
   settlement was abandoned in favor of a nearby islet on the coast, named
   Puerto Rico (Rich Port), which had a suitable harbour. In 1511, a
   second settlement, San Germán, would be established in the southwestern
   part of the island. Sometime during the 1520s, the island took the name
   of Puerto Rico while the port became San Juan.

   Colonization took shape as encomienda settlements, where settlers
   enslaved Taínos as laborers and these, in return, were provided with
   military protection. To stop the exploitation of the indigenous people
   and because of pressure by the Roman Catholic Church the Burgos' Laws,
   which modified the encomiendas into a new system called repartimientos,
   were issued on December 27, 1512 by Ferdinand II of Aragon. However,
   the laws were mostly ignored and reality was more akin to abject
   slavery. In 1511, the Taínos revolted against the Spanish. It is
   claimed that cacique Urayoán, as planned by Agüeybaná II, ordered his
   warriors to drown Diego Salcedo to determine whether or not the
   Spaniards were immortal. After drowning Diego, they kept watch over his
   body for three days to confirm his death. The revolt was easily crushed
   by Ponce de León and within a few decades much of the native population
   had been decimated by disease, violence, and a high occurrence of
   suicide.

   The Roman Catholic Church, realizing the opportunity to expand its
   influence, also "colonized" the island. On August 8, 1511, Pope Julius
   II established three dioceses in the New World, one in Puerto Rico and
   two on the island of Hispaniola under the archbishop of Seville. The
   Canon of Salamanca, Alonso Manso, was appointed bishop of the Puerto
   Rican diocese. On September 26, 1512, before his arrival on the island,
   the first school of advanced studies was established by the bishop.
   Taking possession in 1513 he became the first bishop to arrive in
   America. Puerto Rico would also become the first ecclesiastical
   headquarters in the New World during the reign of Pope Leo X and the
   general headquarters of the Spanish Inquisition in the New World.

   As part of the colonization process African slaves were introduced to
   the island in 1513. Over the years, following the decline of the Taíno
   population, many more slaves were brought to Puerto Rico. However, the
   number of slaves in the island paled in comparison to those in
   neighboring islands. Also, at this early time of colonization attempts
   were made to wrestle control of Puerto Rico away from Spain. The
   Caribs, a raiding tribe of the Caribbean, attacked Spanish settlements
   along the banks of the Daguao and Macao rivers in 1514 and again in
   1521 but each time they were easily repelled by the superior Spanish
   firepower. However, these would not be the last attempts to wrestle
   control of Puerto Rico. The European powers quickly realized the
   potential of the newly discovered lands and attempted to gain control
   of them.

European threats

   View across the bay of San Juan of Fort San Felipe del Morro
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   View across the bay of San Juan of Fort San Felipe del Morro

   Sparked by the possibility of immense wealth the 16th, 17th and 18th
   centuries saw many attempts by the European powers to wrestle control
   of the Americas away from Spain. This, in turn, led to many invasions
   of the island of Puerto Rico. These invasions had varying degrees of
   success but in the end, all failed to maintain permanent control of the
   island. In 1528, the French, recognizing the strategic value of Puerto
   Rico, sacked and burned the southwest town of San Germán. They also
   destroyed many of the island's first settlements, including Guánica,
   Sotomayor, Daguao and Loíza, before the local militia forced them to
   retreat. The only settlement that remained was the capital, San Juan.

   Spain, also recognizing the strategic value of Puerto Rico, began the
   fortification of the inlet of San Juan in the early 16th century. In
   1532, construction of the first fortifications would begin with La
   Fortaleza ("the Fortress") near the entrance to San Juan bay. Seven
   years later the construction of massive defenses around San Juan began,
   including Fort San Felipe del Morro astride the entrance to San Juan
   bay. Later, Fort San Cristóbal and Fort San Jerónimo also garrisoned
   troops and defended against land attacks. These forts were built with a
   financial subsidy from the Mexican mines. In 1587, engineers Juan de
   Tejada and Juan Bautista Antonelli redesigned Fort San Felipe del
   Morro; these changes still endure today.

   On November 22, 1595, English privateer Sir Francis Drake, with 27
   vessels and 2,500 troops, sailed into San Juan Bay in an attempt to
   loot the city. Even though San Juan was set ablaze, they were unable to
   defeat the entrenched forces in the forts. With the knowledge of
   Drake's failure to overtake the defenses of the city by sea, on June
   15, 1598, the British Navy led by George Clifford, Earl of Cumberland,
   landed troops from 21 ships to the east in Santurce. Spanish resistance
   was met while Clifford and his men were attempting to cross the San
   Antonio bridge (from an area known today as Condado) into the islet of
   San Juan. Nonetheless, the British conquered the island and held it for
   several months. They were forced to abandon the island owing to an
   outbreak of dysentery among the troops. The following year Spain sent
   soldiers, cannons, and a new governor, Alonso de Mercado, to rebuild
   the city of San Juan.

   The 17th century and 18th centuries saw more attacks on the island. On
   September 25, 1625, the Dutch,under the leadership of Boudewijn
   Hendrick (Balduino Enrico), attacked San Juan, besieging Fort San
   Felipe del Morro and La Fortaleza. Residents fled the city and the
   Spanish, led by Governor Juan de Haro were able to repel the Dutch
   troops from Fort San Felipe del Morro. In their retreat the Dutch set
   the city ablaze. Meanwhile, the fortification of San Juan continued. In
   1634, Philip IV of Spain fortified Fort San Cristóbal, along with six
   fortresses linked by a line of sandstone walls surrounding the city. In
   1702, the English assaulted the town of Arecibo, located on the north
   coast, west of San Juan, with no success. In 1797, the French and
   Spanish declared war on the United Kingdom. The British attempted again
   to conquer the island, attacking San Juan with an invasion force of
   7,000 troops and an armada consisting of 64 warships under the command
   of General Ralph Abercromby. Captain General Don Ramón de Castro and
   his army successfully resisted the attack.

   Amidst the constant attacks the first threads of Puerto Rican society
   emerged. A 1765 census conducted by Lt. General Alejandro O'Reilly
   showed a total population of only 44,883, of which 5,037 (11.2%) were
   slaves. This constitutes a low percentage when compared to the other
   Spanish colonies in the Caribbean. In 1786, the first comprehensive
   book of Puerto Rico was published by Fray Iñigo Abbad y Lasierra. The
   book, titled Historia Geográfica, Civil y Política de Puerto Rico, was
   published in Madrid, and constitutes a complete history of Puerto Rico
   from the time of its discovery in 1493 until 1783. The book also
   presents a first hand account of Puerto Rican identity, including
   music, clothing, personality and nationality among other topics.

Early 19th century

   Royal Decree of Graces, 1815, which allowed foreigners to enter Puerto
   Rico
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   Royal Decree of Graces, 1815, which allowed foreigners to enter Puerto
   Rico

   The 19th century brought many changes to the status quo of Puerto Rico.
   Some of these changes were of a political nature while others related
   to Puerto Rican society. In 1809, the Spanish government, in opposition
   to Napoleon, was convened in Cádiz in southern Spain. While still
   swearing allegiance to the king, the Cortes invited voting
   representatives from the colonies. Ramón Power y Giralt was nominated
   as the local delegate to the Cádiz Cortes. The Power Law soon followed,
   which designated five ports for free commerce, Fajardo, Mayagüez,
   Aguadilla, Cabo Rojo and Ponce, and also established economic reforms
   in the interest of developing a more efficient economy. In 1812, the
   Cádiz Constitution was adopted, dividing Spain and its territories into
   provinces, each with a local corporation or council to promote its
   prosperity and defend its interests, and granted Puerto Ricans
   conditional citizenship.

   On August 10, 1815, the Royal Decree of Grace was issued, allowing
   foreigners to enter Puerto Rico (including French refugees from
   Hispaniola), and opened the port to trade with nations other than
   Spain. This was the beginning of an agriculture-based economic growth,
   with sugar, tobacco and coffee being the main products. The Decree also
   gave free land to anyone who swore their loyalty to the Spanish Crown
   and their allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church. Many people from
   Germany, Corsica, Ireland, France, Portugal, the Canary Islands and
   other locations, escaping from harsh economic times in Europe and lured
   by the offer of free land, soon immigrated to Puerto Rico. However,
   these small gains in autonomy and rights were short lived. After the
   fall of Napoleon, absolute power returned to Spain which revoked the
   Cádiz Constitution and reinstated Puerto Rico to its former condition
   of a colony, subject to the unrestricted power of the Spanish monarch.

   Aside from the integration of immigrants to Puerto Rican culture other
   events further changed Puerto Rican society. On June 25, 1835, Queen
   María Cristina abolished the slave trade to Spanish colonies. In 1851,
   Governor Juan de la Pezuela Cevallos founded the Royal Academy of
   Belles Letters. The academy licensed primary school teachers,
   formulated school methods, and held literary contests that promoted the
   intellectual and literary progress of the island. In 1858, the
   telegraph was introduced into the island with the assistance of Samuel
   Morse when he installed a line in the town of Arroyo at Havienda La
   Enriqueta.

Struggle for autonomy

   Lares revolutionary flag, used in the unsuccessful Grito de Lares
   (Lares Uprising)
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   Lares revolutionary flag, used in the unsuccessful Grito de Lares
   (Lares Uprising)

   The latter half of the 19th century was marked by the Puerto Rican
   struggle for autonomy. A census conducted in 1860 revealed a population
   of 583,308. Of these 300,406 (51.5%) were white and 282,775 (48.5%)
   were colored (which included Blacks, Mulattos and Mestizos). The
   majority of the population was illiterate (83.7%) and lived in poverty.
   The agriculture industry, which at the time was the main source of
   income, was hampered by lack of roads, rudimentary tools and equipment
   and natural disasters, such as hurricanes and droughts. The economy
   also suffered from increasing tariffs and taxes imposed by the Spanish
   Crown. Furthermore, Spain had also begun to exile or jail any person
   who called for liberal reforms.

   On September 23, 1868, hundreds of women and men in the town of Lares,
   stricken by poverty and political estrangement from Spain, revolted
   against Spanish rule seeking Puerto Rican independence. El Grito de
   Lares ("Lares Cry" or "Lares Uprising") was planned by a group led by
   Dr. Ramón Emeterio Betances, at the time exiled to the Dominican
   Republic, and Segundo Ruiz Belvis. Dr. Betances had founded the Comité
   Revolucionario de Puerto Rico ( Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico)
   in January 1868. The most important figures in the uprising were Manuel
   Rojas, Mathias Brugman, Mariana Bracetti, Francisco Ramirez Medina and
   Lola Rodríguez de Tió. The uprising, although significant, was easily
   crushed.
   Román Baldorioty de Castro, one of Puerto Rico's first abilitionists
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   Román Baldorioty de Castro, one of Puerto Rico's first abilitionists

   As a result of the Grito de Lares political and social reforms occurred
   toward the end of the 19th century. On June 4, 1870, as a result of the
   efforts of Roman Baldorioty de Castro, Luis Padial and Julio
   Vizcarrondo, the Moret Law is approved, in which liberty was given to
   slaves born after September 17, 1868 or over 60 years old and on March
   22, 1873, the Spanish National Assembly officially abolished, with a
   few special clauses, slavery in Puerto Rico. In 1870, the first
   political organizations on the island were formed as two factions
   emerged. The Traditionalists, known as the Partido Liberal Conservador
   ( Liberal Conservative Party) and led by José R. Fernández, Pablo
   Ubarri and Francisco Paula Acuña, advocated assimilation into the
   political party system of Spain. Meanwhile, the Autonomists, known as
   the Partido Liberal Reformista ( Liberal Reformist Party) and led by
   Román Baldorioty de Castro, José Julián Acosta, Nicolás Aguayo and
   Pedro Gerónimo Goico advocated decentralization away from Spanish
   control. Both parties would later change their names to Partido Federal
   Reformista ( Reformist Federal Party) and Partido Español Incondicional
   ( Unconditional Spanish Party), respectively. In March 1887, the
   Partido Federal Reformista was reformed and named the Partido
   Autonomista Puertorriqueño ( Puerto Rican Autonomist Party). It tried
   to create a political and legal identity for Puerto Rico while
   emulating Spain in all political matters. It was led by Román
   Baldorioty de Castro, José Celso Barbosa, Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón and
   Luis Muñoz Rivera.

   The struggle for autonomy came close to achieving its goal when on
   November 25, 1897, the Carta Autonómica ( Autonomic Charter), which
   conceded political and administrative autonomy to the island, was
   approved in Spain. It allowed the island to retain its representation
   in the Spanish Cortes, and provided for a bicameral legislature. That
   same year, the Partido Autonomista Ortodoxo ( Orthodox Autonomist
   Party) would be founded, led by José Celso Barbosa and Manuel Fernández
   Juncos. On February 9, 1898, the new government officially began.
   Governor General Manuel Macías, who had no authority to intervene in
   civil and political matters unless authorized to do so by the Cabinet,
   inaugurated the new government of Puerto Rico under the Autonomous
   Charter which gave town councils complete autonomy in local matters.
   However, the partially autonomous government would be short lived as
   Puerto Rico was about to be invaded by the United States of America in
   the onset of the Spanish-American War.

Invasion of 1898

   U.S. 1st Kentucky Volunteers in "Porto [sic] Rico", 1898
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   U.S. 1st Kentucky Volunteers in "Porto [sic] Rico", 1898

   On March 10, 1898, Dr. Julio J. Henna and Robert H. Todd, leaders of
   the Puerto Rican section of the Cuban Revolutionary Party, began to
   correspond with United States President William McKinley and the United
   States Senate in hopes that they would consider including Puerto Rico
   the intervention planned for Cuba. Henna and Todd also provided the
   U.S. government with information about the Spanish military presence on
   the island. On April 24, Spanish Minister of Defense Segismundo Bermejo
   sent instructions to Spanish Admiral Cervera to proceed with his fleet
   from Cape Verde to the Caribbean, Cuba and Puerto Rico.

   In May, Lt. Henry H. Whitney of the United States Fourth Artillery was
   sent to Puerto Rico on a reconnaissance mission. He provided maps and
   information on the Spanish military forces to the U.S. government that
   would be useful for an invasion. On May 10, Spanish forces at Fort San
   Cristóbal under the command of Capt. Angel Rivero Mendez in San Juan
   exchanged fire with the USS Yale under the command of Capt. William C.
   Wise. Two days later on May 12, a squadron of 12 U.S. ships commanded
   by Rear Adm. William T. Sampson bombarded San Juan, causing panic among
   the residents. On June 25, the USS Yosemite blocked San Juan harbour.
   On July 18, General Nelson A. Miles, commander of U.S. forces, received
   orders to sail for Puerto Rico and to land his troops. On July 21, a
   convoy with nine transports and 3,300 soldiers, escorted by USS
   Massachusetts (BB-2), sailed for Puerto Rico from Guantánamo. General
   Nelson Miles landed unopposed at Guánica, located in the southern coast
   of the island, on July 25, 1898 with the first contingent of American
   troops. Opposition was met in the southern and central regions of the
   island but by the end of August the island was under United States
   control.

   On August 12, peace protocols were signed in Washington, DC. U.S. and
   Spanish Commissions met in San Juan on September 9, to discuss the
   details of the withdrawal of Spanish troops and the cession of the
   island to the United States. On October 1, an initial meeting is held
   in Paris to draft the Peace Treaty and on December 10, 1898, the Treaty
   of Paris is signed (ratified by the U.S. Senate February 6, 1899).
   Spain renounced all claim to Cuba, ceded Guam and Puerto Rico and its
   dependent islets to the United States, and transferred sovereignty over
   the Philippines to the United States for $20,000,000. General John R.
   Brooke became the first United States military governor of the island.

Rule under the United States of America (1898-Present)

Military government

   U.S. 45-star flag, used by the United States in the invasion of Puerto
   Rico and also the official flag of Puerto Rico from 1899 to 1908.
   Enlarge
   U.S. 45-star flag, used by the United States in the invasion of Puerto
   Rico and also the official flag of Puerto Rico from 1899 to 1908.

   After the signing and ratification of the Treaty of Paris of 1898
   Puerto Rico came under the military control of the United States of
   America. This brought about many changes which are still in effect
   today. The name of the island was changed to Porto Rico (The name would
   be changed back to Puerto Rico in 1932) and the currency was changed
   from the Puerto Rican peso to the United States dollar. Freedom of
   assembly, speech, press, and religion were decreed and an eight-hour
   day for government employees was established. A public school system
   was begun and the U.S. Postal service was extended to the island. The
   highway system was enlarged, and bridges over the more important rivers
   were constructed. The government lottery was abolished, cockfighting
   was forbidden, and a centralized public health service established.
   Health conditions were poor with high rates of infant mortality and
   numerous endemic diseases.

   The beginning of the military government also marked the creation of
   new political groups. The Partido Republicano (Republican Party) and
   the American Federal Party were created, led by José Celso Barbosa and
   Luis Muñoz Rivera respectively. Both groups supported the annexation to
   the United States as a solution to the colonial situation.

   Disaster also struck as two hurricanes ravaged the island in August,
   Hurricane San Ciriaco on August 8, and another unnamed hurricane on
   August 22. Approximately 3,400 people died in the floods and thousands
   were left without shelter, food, or work. The effects on the economy
   were devastating as millions of dollars were lost due to the
   destruction of the majority of the sugar and coffee plantations.

Foraker Act of 1900

   The first Supreme Court of Puerto Rico, established in 1900
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   The first Supreme Court of Puerto Rico, established in 1900

   The rule of the military government in Puerto Rico was short lived. It
   was disbanded on April 2, 1900 when the US Congress enacted the Foraker
   Act (also known as the Organic Act of 1900), under sponsorship of
   Senator Joseph B. Foraker. This act established a civil government and
   free commerce between the island and the United States. The structure
   of the insular government included a governor appointed by the
   president, an executive council (the equivalent of a senate), and a
   legislature with 35 members, though the executive veto required a
   two-thirds vote to over-ride. The first appointed civil governor,
   Charles Herbert Allen, was inaugurated on May 1, 1900. On June 5,
   President McKinley appointed an Executive Council which included five
   Puerto Rican members and six U.S. members. The act also established the
   creation of a judicial system headed by the Supreme Court of Puerto
   Rico and allowed Puerto Rico to send a Resident Commissioner as a
   representative to Congress. The Department of Education was
   subsequently formed, headed by Dr. M. G. Braumbaugh (later governor of
   Pennsylvania). Teaching was conducted entirely in English with Spanish
   treated as a special subject. However, both Spanish and English were
   official languages in the island. On November 6, the first elections
   under the Foraker Act were held and on December 3, the first
   Legislative Assembly took office. Federico Degetau takes office in
   Washington as the first Resident Commissioner from Puerto Rico on March
   14, 1901.

   The new political status sparked the creation of more political groups
   in the island. In 1900, the Partido Federal ( Federal Party) and the
   Partido Obrero Socialista de Puerto Rico ( Socialist Labor Party of
   Puerto Rico) were founded. The former campaigned for Puerto Rico to
   become one of the states in the United States while the latter followed
   the ideals of the Socialist Labor Party of America. Four years later,
   in 1904, Luis Muñoz Rivera and José de Diego restructured the American
   Federal Party into the Partido Unionista de Puerto Rico ( Unionist
   Party of Puerto Rico) with the intention of fighting against the
   colonial government established under the Foraker Act. In 1909, Rosendo
   Matienzo Cintrón, Manuel Zeno Gandía, Luis Llorens Torres, Eugenio
   Benítez Castaño, and Pedro Franceschi founded the Partido
   Independentista ( Independence Party). It was the first political party
   whose agenda was the independence of Puerto Rico.

   The status quo would again be altered in 1909 when the Foraker Act, due
   to weaknesses and a small crisis in Puerto Rico's government, was
   modified by the Olmsted Amendment. This Amendment placed the
   supervision of Puerto Rican affairs in the jurisdiction of an executive
   department to be designated by the president. In 1914, the first Puerto
   Rican officers, Martin Travieso (Secretary) and Manuel V. Domenech
   (Commissioner of Interiors), were assigned to the Executive Cabinet,
   allowing islanders a majority. A 1915 delegation from Puerto Rico,
   accompanied by the Governor Arthur Yager, traveled to Washington to ask
   Congress to grant the island more autonomy. This delegation and
   speeches made by Resident Commissioner Luis Muñoz Rivera in Congress,
   coupled with political and economic interests, led to the drafting of
   the Jones Act of 1917.

Jones Act of 1917

   The Jones Act was approved on December 5, 1916, and signed into law by
   President Woodrow Wilson on March 2, 1917. The law made Puerto Rico a
   United States territory which is "organized but unincorporated". It
   also granted U.S. citizenship to all Puerto Ricans. The Act allowed
   conscription to be extended to the island, which sent 20,000 soldiers
   to the U.S. Army during the First World War. The Act also divided
   governmental powers into three branches: executive (appointed by the
   President of the United States), legislative, and judicial. The
   legislative branch was composed by the senate, consisting of 19
   members, and a house of representatives, consisting of 39 members. The
   members of the legislature were freely elected by the Puerto Rican
   people. A bill of rights, which established elections to be held every
   four years, was also created. The Act also made English the official
   language of the Puerto Rican courts.

   On October 11, 1918, an earthquake occurred, with an approximate
   magnitude of 7.3 on the Richter scale and was accompanied by a tsunami
   reaching 6.1 metres (20 feet) in height. The epicenter was located
   northwest of Aguadilla in the Mona Canyon (between Puerto Rico and the
   Dominican Republic). This earthquake caused great damage and loss of
   life at Mayagüez, and lesser damage along the west coast. Tremors
   continued for several weeks.
   Picture by journalist Carlos Torres Morales of the Ponce Massacre,
   March 21, 1937
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   Picture by journalist Carlos Torres Morales of the Ponce Massacre,
   March 21, 1937

   As a consequence of the Jones Act and the establishment of elections, a
   new political party, the Partido Nacionalista de Puerto Rico ( Puerto
   Rican Nationalist Party), was founded on September 17, 1922. In the
   1930s, the Nationalist Party, led by Pedro Albizu Campos withdrew from
   political participation and increased conflict arose between their
   adherents and the authorities. They attacked Blanton Winship, the
   appointed Governor of Puerto Rico, Elisha Francis Riggs Chief of
   Police, and Robert A. Cooper Judge of the Federal Tribunal in Puerto
   Rico. On February 23, 1936, two Nationalists Hiram Rosado and Elias
   Beauchamp, in retaliation for the " Rio Piedras Massacre", killed
   Police Chief Riggs in San Juan. They were apprehended and summarily
   executed at police headquarters. On July 31, 1936, Pedro Albizu Campos,
   Juan Antonio Corretjer, Clemente Soto Vélez and other Nationalists were
   sentenced to 6-10 years in federal prison. Later, in 1937, police
   opened fire at a Nacionalista de Puerto Rico (Puerto Rican Nationalist)
   Party parade, known as the " Ponce Massacre"; 20 people were killed and
   100 wounded.
   Sugar cane plantation, the main employers in Puerto Rico until the
   Great Depression
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   Sugar cane plantation, the main employers in Puerto Rico until the
   Great Depression

   In the 1920s the economy of Puerto Rico was booming. The drastic
   increase in the price of sugar, Puerto Rico's principal export, brought
   increasing revenues to the island. As a result the island's
   infrastructure was steadily upgraded. New schools, roads and bridges
   were constructed. The increase in private wealth was reflected in the
   erection of many residences, while the development of commerce and
   agriculture stimulated the extension of banking and transport
   facilities. The high infant mortality death rate of the late 19th
   century declined steadily, thanks in large measure to basic public
   health programs. However, the economic growth would come to a
   screeching halt in 1929 when the United States stock market crashed.

   The Great Depression hit the island hard. At the time, agriculture was
   the main contributor to the economy. Industry and commerce slowed
   during the 1930s as well. The depression was further aggravated when on
   September 27, 1932, Hurricane San Ciprián struck the island. Exact
   figures of the destruction are not known but estimates say that 200-300
   people were killed, more than a thousand were injured, and property
   damage escalated to $30-50 million. The agricultural production, the
   principal economic driver for the island, came to a standstill.
   However, the decline of the economy would not end there. A new federal
   minimum wage law of 25 cents an hour took effect in 1938. As a
   consequence, two thirds of the island's textile factories closed
   because worker productivity was below that level.

Establishment of the Commonwealth

   After World War II social, political and economical changes began to
   take place that have continued to resonate until today. The end of
   World War II saw the beginning of a two decade migration to the
   continental United States, mainly to New York. The main reasons for
   this were an undesirable economic situation brought by the Great
   Depression and the heavy recruitment made by the U.S. armed forces and
   U.S. companies. Currently more than 2 million Puerto Ricans live
   abroad. Political changes began in 1946 when President Truman
   designated the first native as governor of Puerto Rico, Commissioner
   Resident Jesús T. Piñero, and when one year later the United States
   Congress passed an act allowing Puerto Ricans to vote for their own
   governor. The first elections under this act were performed on November
   2, 1948. Luis Muñoz Marín, president of the Puerto Rican senate,
   successfully campaigned and became the first democratically elected
   Governor of the island on January 2, 1949. In the 1950s, an ambitious
   industrialization project dubbed Operation Bootstrap was launched under
   governor Muñoz Marín. It was coupled with agrarian reform (land
   redistribution) that limited the area that could be held by large
   sugarcane interests. Operation Bootstrap enticed U.S. mainland
   investors to transfer or create manufacturing plants by granting them
   local and federal tax concessions, but maintaining the access to US
   markets free of import duties. Another incentive was the lower wage
   scales in the densely populated island, which had a rising urban
   unemployed population. The program accelerated the shift from an
   agricultural to an industrial society. The 1950s saw the development of
   labor-intensive light industries, such as textiles; later manufacturing
   gave way to heavy industry, such as petrochemicals and oil refining, in
   the 1960s and 1970s. Muñoz Marín's development programs brought some
   prosperity for an emergent middle class. The industrialization was in
   part fueled by generous local incentives and freedom from federal
   taxation, while providing access to continental U.S. markets without
   import duties. As a result, a rural agricultural society was
   transformed into an industrial working class.
   Flag of Puerto Rico, created in 1895 and officially adopted in 1952
   Enlarge
   Flag of Puerto Rico, created in 1895 and officially adopted in 1952

   On July 4, 1950, President Harry S. Truman signed Public Act 600, which
   allowed Puerto Ricans to draft their own constitution establishing the
   Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. The U.S. Congress had granted commonwealth
   status on Puerto Rico that enhanced Puerto Rico's political status from
   protectorate to commonwealth. This, coupled with Muñoz Marín's reversal
   on not pursuing Puerto Rican Independence angered some Puerto Ricans.
   On late October 1950, a group of Puerto Rican nationalists, led by
   Pedro Albizu Campos, staged several revolts, the most successful of
   which is known as the Jayuya Uprising. The revolts included an attack
   on the governor's mansion, La Fortaleza, the United States Capitol and
   at Blair House, where nationalists attempted to assassinate United
   States President Harry S. Truman. These acts led Muñoz to crack down on
   Puerto Rican nationalists and advocates of Puerto Rican independence.
   The actions by both Muñoz and the United States' Government would later
   be determined as infringing on constitutional rights. On July 25, 1952,
   the Constitution of Puerto Rico was approved by voters in a referendum,
   and the island organized as the Estado Libre Asociado (Commonwealth of
   Puerto Rico). That same year marked the first time that the Flag of
   Puerto Rico could be publicly displayed.

   The Partido Estadistas Unidos (United Statehooders Party) was founded
   by Luis A. Ferré to campaign for statehood in the 1967 plebiscite. On
   July 23, 1967, the first plebiscite on the political status of Puerto
   Rico was held. Voters overwhelmingly affirmed continuation of
   Commonwealth status (Commonwealth–60.4% Statehood–39%;
   Independence–0.6%). Other plebiscites have taken place to determine the
   political status of Puerto Rico, one in 1993 and another in 1998. Both
   times, although by smaller margins, the status quo has been upheld.
   However, the U.S. constitution does not mention this avenue of status,
   hence legally the island remains territory of the U.S. under
   congressional supervision. Estadistas Unidos organized the Partido
   Nuevo Progresista (New Progressive Party) under Ferré's leadership. The
   party campaigned for Puerto Rico to become the 51st state in the Union.
   Luis A. Ferré was elected governor on November 5, 1968, with 43.6% of
   the vote, the first time a pro-statehood governor has received a
   majority. The New Progressive Party, the Popular Democratic Party and
   the Independence Party constitute the current established political
   parties in the island.

   Present-day Puerto Rico has become a major tourist destination and a
   leading pharmaceutical and manufacturing centre. Still, Puerto Rico
   continues to struggle to define its political status. Even though
   Puerto Rico was granted local autonomy in 1952 it remains a territory
   of the United States. This ambiguity continues to spark political
   debates which dominate Puerto Rican society. Economically, Puerto Rico
   has recently seen its credit rating downgraded to Baa2 by Moody's
   Inverstor Services with the possibility of more downgrades happening in
   the near future. This has led to fiscal reforms to reduce government
   spending, increase revenues and balance the budget.

   On 25 October 2006, the Puerto Rico State Department conferred to Juan
   Mari Brás the Puerto Rican citizenship, thought to have been long dead
   since 1917. The Puerto Rico Supreme Court and the Puerto Rican
   Secretary of Justice determined that the Puerto Rican citizenship in
   fact existed and was recognised in the Puerto Rican constitution, as in
   the Insular Cases (Casos Insulares in Spanish) of 1901 through 1922 of
   the U.S. Supreme Court.

Additional reading

     * Rivera Batiz, Francisco L., Santiago, Carlos E. (1998). Island
       Paradox: Puerto Rico in the 1990s. Russell Sage Foundation
       Publications. ISBN 0-87154-751-1.

     * Duany, Jorge (2002). The Puerto Rican Nation on the Move:
       Identities on the Island and in the United States. The University
       of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-5372-0.

     * Cordasco, Francesco (1973). The Puerto Rican Experience: A
       Sociological Sourcebook. Littlefield Adams. ISBN 0-8226-0259-8.

     * Johnson, Robert D. (1997). "Anti-Imperialism And The Good Neighbour
       Policy: Ernest Gruening and Puerto Rican Affairs, 1934–1939".
       Journal of Latin American Studies 29 (1): 89–110.

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