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Horse

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Mammals

       How to read a taxoboxDomestic Horse

                             Conservation status

   Domesticated
            Scientific classification

   Kingdom: Animalia
   Phylum:  Chordata
   Class:   Mammalia
   Order:   Perissodactyla
   Family:  Equidae
   Genus:   Equus
   Species: E. caballus

                                Binomial name

   Equus caballus
   Linnaeus, 1758

   The horse (Equus caballus, sometimes seen as a subspecies of the Wild
   Horse, Equus ferus caballus) is a large odd-toed ungulate mammal, one
   of ten modern species of the genus Equus. Horses have long been among
   the most economically important domesticated animals; although their
   importance has declined with mechanization, they are still found
   worldwide, fitting into human lives in various ways. The horse is
   prominent in religion, mythology, and art; it has played an important
   role in transportation, agriculture, and war; it has additionally
   served as a source of food, fuel, and clothing.

   Almost all breeds of horses can, at least in theory, carry humans on
   their backs or be harnessed to pull objects such as carts or plows.
   However, horse breeds were developed to allow horses to be specialized
   for certain task; lighter horses for racing or riding, heavier horses
   for farming and other tasks requiring pulling power. In some societies,
   horses are a source of food, both meat and milk; in others it is taboo
   to consume them. In industrialized countries horses are predominantly
   kept for leisure and sporting pursuits, while they are still used as
   working animals in many other parts of the world.

Biology

   Anatomy of a horse from an Egyptian (Arabic) document (15th century)
   Anatomy of a horse from an Egyptian ( Arabic) document (15th century)

Age

   Depending on breed, management and environment, the domestic horse
   today has a life expectancy of 25 to 30 years. It is uncommon, but a
   few horses live into their 40s, and, occasionally, beyond. The oldest
   verifiable record was "Old Billy," a horse that lived in the 19th
   century to the age of 62.

   The following terminology is used to describe horses of various ages:
     * Foal: a horse of either sex less than one year old. A nursing foal
       is sometimes called a suckling and a foal that has been weaned is
       called a weanling. Most foals are weaned at 4-6 months of age.
     * Yearling: a horse of either sex that is between one and two years
       old.
     * Colt: a male horse under the age of four.
     * Filly: a female horse under the age of four.
     * Mare: a female horse four years old and older.
     * Stallion: a non-castrated male horse four years old and older. Some
       people, particularly in the UK, refer to a stallion as a "horse."
     * Gelding: A castrated male horse of any age, though for convenience
       sake, many people also refer to a young gelding under the age of
       four as a "colt."

   In horse racing the definitions of colt, filly, mare, and stallion or
   horse may differ from those given above. In the United Kingdom,
   Thoroughbred horse racing defines a colt as a male horse less than five
   years old and a filly as a female horse less than five years old. In
   the USA, both Thoroughbred racing and harness racing defines colts and
   fillies as four years old and younger.

Size

   The size of horses varies by breed, but can also be influenced by
   nutrition. The general rule for cutoff in height between what is
   considered a horse and a pony at maturity is 14.2 hands(h or hh) (147
   cm, 58 inches) as measured at the withers. An animal 14.2h or over is
   usually considered a horse and one less than 14.2h is a pony.

   However, there are exceptions to the general rule. Some smaller horse
   breeds who typically produce individual horses both under and over
   14.2h are considered "horses" regardless of height. Likewise, some pony
   breeds, such as the Pony of the Americas or the Welsh cob, share some
   features of horses and individual animals may occasionally mature at
   over 14.2h, but are still considered ponies.

   The difference between a horse and pony is not simply a height
   difference, but also a difference in phenotype or appearance. There are
   noticeable differences in conformation and temperament. Ponies often
   exhibit thicker manes, tails and overall coat. They also have
   proportionally shorter legs, wider barrels, heavy bone, thick necks,
   and short heads with broad foreheads.

   Light horses such as Arabians, Morgans, Quarter Horses, Paints and
   Thoroughbreds usually range in height from 14.0 (142 cm) to 16.0 hands
   (163 cm) and can weigh from 386 kilograms (850 lbs) to about 680 kg
   (1500 lbs). Heavy or draft horses such as the Clydesdale, Belgian,
   Percheron, and Shire are usually at least 16.0 (163 cm) to 18.0 hands
   (183 cm) high and can weigh from about 682 kg (1500 lb) up to about 900
   kg (2000 lb). Ponies are less than 14.2h, but can be much smaller, down
   to the Shetland pony at around 10 hands, and the Falabella which can be
   the size of a medium-sized dog. The miniature horse is as small as or
   smaller than either of the aforementioned ponies but are classified as
   very small horses rather than ponies despite their size.

   The largest horse in history was a Shire horse named Sampson, later
   renamed Mammoth, foaled in 1846 in Bedfordshire, England. He stood
   21.2½ hands high (i.e. 7 ft 2½ in or 2.20 m ), and his peak weight was
   estimated at over 3,300 lb (approx 1.5 tonnes). The current record
   holder for the world's smallest horse is Thumbelina, a fully mature
   miniature horse affected by dwarfism. She is 17 inches tall and weighs
   60 pounds.

Reproduction and development

   Pregnancy lasts for approximately 335-340 days and usually results in
   one foal (male: colt, female: filly). Twins are rare. Colts are usually
   carried 2-7 days longer than fillies. Females 4 years and over are
   called mares and males are stallions. A castrated male is a gelding.
   Horses, particularly colts, may sometimes be physically capable of
   reproduction at approximately 18 months but in practice are rarely
   allowed to breed until a minimum age of 3 years, especially females.
   Horses four years old are considered mature, though the skeleton
   usually finishes developing at the age of six, and the precise time of
   completion of development also depends on the horse's size (therefore a
   connection to breed exists), gender, and the quality of care provided
   by its owner. Also, if the horse is larger, its bones are larger;
   therefore, not only do the bones take longer to actually form bone
   tissue (bones are made of cartilage in earlier stages of bone
   formation), but the epiphyseal plates (plates that fuse a bone into one
   piece by connecting the bone shaft to the bone ends) are also larger
   and take longer to convert from cartilage to bone as well. These plates
   convert after the other parts of the bones do but are crucial to
   development.

   Depending on maturity, breed and the tasks expected, young horses are
   usually put under saddle and trained to be ridden between the ages of
   two and four. Although Thoroughbred and American Quarter Horse race
   horses are put on the track at as young as two years old in some
   countries (notably the United States), horses specifically bred for
   sports such as show jumping and dressage are generally not entered into
   top-level competition until a minimum age of four years old, because
   their bones and muscles are not solidly developed, nor is their
   advanced training complete.

Anatomy

   Horses have, on average, a skeleton of 205 bones. A significant
   difference in the bones contained in the horse skeleton, as compared to
   that of a human, is the lack of a collarbone--their front limb system
   is attached to the spinal column by a powerful set of muscles, tendons
   and ligaments that attach the shoulder blade to the torso. The horse's
   legs and hooves are also unique, interesting structures. Their leg
   bones are proportioned differently from those of a human. For example,
   the body part that is called a horse's "knee" is actually the carpal
   bones that correspond to the human wrist. Similarly, the hock, contains
   the bones equivalent to those in the human ankle and heel. The lower
   leg bones of a horse correspond to the bones of the human hand or foot,
   and the fetlock (incorrectly called the "ankle") is actually the
   proximal sesamoid bones between the cannon bones (a single equivalent
   to the human metacarpal or metatarsal bones) and the proximal
   phalanges, located where one finds the "knuckles" of a human. A horse
   also has no muscles in its legs below the knees and hocks, only skin
   and hair, bone, tendons, ligaments, cartilage, and the assorted
   specialized tissues that make up the hoof (see section hooves, below).

Digestion

   A horse is a herbivore with a digestive system adapted to a forage diet
   of grasses and other plant material, consumed regularly throughout the
   day, and so they have a relatively small stomach but very long
   intestines to facilitate a steady flow of nutrients. A 1000 pound horse
   will eat between 15 and 25 pounds of food per day and, under normal
   use, drink 10 to 12 gallons of water. Horses are not ruminants, so they
   have only one stomach, like humans, but unlike humans, they can also
   digest cellulose from grasses due to the presence of a "hind gut"
   called the cecum, or "water gut," that food goes through before
   reaching the large intestine. Unlike humans, horses cannot vomit, so
   digestion problems can quickly spell trouble, with colic a leading
   cause of death.

Teeth

   Horses are adapted to grazing, so their teeth continue to grow
   throughout life. There are 12 teeth (six upper and six lower), the
   incisors, adapted to biting off the grass or other vegetation, at the
   front of the mouth, and 24 teeth, the premolar and molars, adapted for
   chewing, at the back of the mouth. Stallions and geldings have four
   additional teeth just behind the incisors, a type of canine teeth that
   are called "tushes." Some horses, both male and female, will also
   develop one to four very small vestigial teeth in front of the molars,
   known as "wolf" teeth, which are generally removed because they can
   interfere with the bit.

   There is an empty interdental space between the incisors and the molars
   where the bit rests directly on the bars (gums) of the horse's mouth
   when the horse is bridled.

   The incisors show a distinct wear and growth pattern as the horse ages,
   as well as change in the angle at which the chewing surfaces meet, and
   while the diet and veterinary care of the horse can affect the rate of
   tooth wear, a very rough estimate of the age of a horse can be made by
   looking at its teeth.

Hooves

   The critical importance of the feet and legs is summed up by the
   traditional adage, "no foot, no horse." The horse hoof begins with the
   distal phalanges, the equivalent of the human fingertip or tip of the
   toe, surrounded by cartilage and other specialized, blood-rich soft
   tissues such as the laminae, with the exterior hoof wall and horn of
   the sole made essentially of the same material as a human fingernail.
   The end result is that a horse, weighing on average 1,000 pounds,
   travels on the same bones as a human on tiptoe. For the protection of
   the hoof under certain conditions, some horses have horseshoes placed
   on their feet by a professional farrier. The hoof continually grows,
   just like a large fingernail, and needs to be trimmed (and horseshoes
   reset, if used) every six to eight weeks.

Senses

   A horse's eye
   A horse's eye

   The senses of a horse are generally superior to those of a human. As
   prey animals, they must be aware of their surroundings at all times.
   They have very large eyes (among land animals only the ostrich has a
   larger eye), with excellent day and night vision, though they may have
   a limited range of colour vision. The side positioning of the eyes
   gives the horse a wide field of vision of about 350°. While not
   colour-blind, studies indicate that they have difficulty distinguishing
   greens, browns and grays. Their hearing is good, and the pinna of their
   ears can rotate a full 360 degrees in order to pick up sound from any
   direction. Their sense of smell, while much better than that of humans,
   is not their strongest asset; they rely to a greater extent on vision.

   A horse's sense of balance is outstanding; the cerebellum of their
   brain is highly developed and they are very aware of terrain and
   placement of their feet. Horses' sense of touch is better developed
   than many people think; they immediately notice when a fly or mosquito
   lands on them, even before the insect attempts to bite. Their sense of
   taste is well-developed in order to determine the nature of the plants
   they are eating, and their prehensile lips can easily sort even the
   smallest grains. Horses will seldom eat most poisonous plants or
   spoiled food unless they have no other choices, although a few toxic
   plants have a chemical structure that appeals to animals, and thus
   poses a greater risk of being ingested.

Behaviour

   Horses are prey animals with a well-developed fight-or-flight instinct.
   Their first response to threat is to flee, although they are known to
   stand their ground and defend themselves or their offspring in cases
   where flight is not possible, such as when a foal would be threatened.
   Through selective breeding, some breeds of horses have been bred to be
   quite docile, particularly certain large draft horses. However, most
   light horse riding breeds were developed for speed, agility, alertness
   and endurance; natural qualities that extend from their wild ancestors.

   Horses are herd animals, with a clear hierarchy of rank, led by a
   dominant animal (usually a mare). Horses are also social creatures who
   are able to form companionship attachments to their own species and to
   other animals, including humans. They communicate in various ways,
   including vocalizations such as nickering or whinnying, mutual
   grooming, and body language. Many horses will become flighty and hard
   to manage if they are isolated. When this behaviour occurs while being
   handled by human, the horse is called being "herd-bound". However,
   through proper training, it is possible to teach any horse to be
   comfortable away from the herd.

   When confined with insufficient companionship, exercise or stimulation,
   horses may develop stable vices, an assortment of bad habits, mostly
   psychological in origin, that include wood chewing, wall kicking,
   "weaving" (rocking back and forth) and other problems.

Sleep patterns

   When horses lie down to sleep, others in the herd remain standing,
   awake or in a light doze, in order to keep watch.
   When horses lie down to sleep, others in the herd remain standing,
   awake or in a light doze, in order to keep watch.

   Horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down. They are able
   to doze and enter light sleep while standing, an adaptation from life
   as a prey animal in the wild. Lying down makes an animal more
   vulnerable to predators. Horses are able to sleep standing up because a
   "stay apparatus" in their legs allows them to relax their muscles and
   doze without collapsing.

   Unlike humans, horses do not need a solid, unbroken period of sleep
   time. They obtain needed sleep by means of many short periods of rest.
   Horses may spend anywhere from four to fifteen hours a day in standing
   rest, and from a few minutes to several hours lying down. However, not
   all this time is the horse actually asleep; total sleep time in a day
   may range from several minutes to a couple of hours. Horses require
   approximately two and a half hours of sleep, on average, in a 24-hour
   period. Most of this sleep occurs in many short intervals of about 15
   minutes each.
   Horses need to lie down occasionally, and prefer soft ground for a nap.
   Horses need to lie down occasionally, and prefer soft ground for a nap.

   Horses must lie down to reach REM sleep. They only have to lie down for
   an hour or two every few days to meet their minimum REM sleep
   requirements. However, if a horse is never allowed to lie down, after
   several days it will become sleep-deprived, and in rare cases may
   suddenly collapse as it involuntarily slips into REM sleep while still
   standing. This condition differs from narcolepsy, though horses may
   also suffer from that disorder.

   Horses sleep better when in groups because some animals will sleep
   while others stand guard to watch for predators. A horse kept entirely
   alone will not sleep well because its instincts are to keep a constant
   eye out for danger.

Gaits

   Sequence of a race horse galloping
   Sequence of a race horse galloping

   All horses move naturally with four basic gaits; the walk, trot or jog,
   canter or lope, and gallop.

   Besides these basic gaits, there are many additional "ambling" or
   "single-foot" gaits such as pace, slow gait, rack, fox trot running
   walk, and tölt. These special gaits are often found in specific breeds,
   often referred to as "gaited" horses because they naturally possess
   additional gaits that are approximately the same speed as the trot but
   smoother to ride. Technically speaking the so called "gaited horses"
   replace the standard trot which is a 2 beat gait with a four beat gait
   (as opposed to the canter/lope and gallop which are three beat gaits).

   Horse breeds with additional gaits that often occur naturally include
   the Tennessee Walking Horse which naturally performs a running walk,
   the American Saddlebred which can easily be trained to exhibit a slow
   gait and the rack, the Paso Fino horse with the paso corto and paso
   largo, and Icelandic horses which are known for the tölt. The fox trot
   is found in several breeds, most notably the Missouri Foxtrotter.
   Standardbreds, depending on bloodlines and training, may either pace or
   trot.

Horse Care

   Horses are animals that evolved to graze. Therefore, they eat grass or
   hay, sometimes supplemented with grain. Although horses are adapted to
   live outside, they require shelter from the wind and rain. Horses
   require annual vaccinations to protect against various diseases, need
   routine hoof care by a farrier, and regular dental examinations from a
   veterinarian or a specialized equine dentist. If horses are kept inside
   in a barn, they require regular daily exercise for their physical
   health and mental well-being.

Evolution

   Mesohippus, an ancestor of the modern horse
   Mesohippus, an ancestor of the modern horse

   The horse as it is known today adapted by evolution to survive in areas
   of wide-open terrain with sparse vegetation, surviving in an ecosystem
   where other large grazing animals, especially ruminants, could not.

   Horses and other equids are odd-toed ungulates of the order
   Perissodactyla, a relatively ancient group of browsing and grazing
   animals that first arose less than 10 million years after the dinosaurs
   became extinct. In the past, this order contained twelve families, but
   only three families— Equidae (the horse and related species), the tapir
   and the rhinoceros—have survived to the present day. The earliest
   equids known as Hyracotherium developed approximately 54 million years
   ago, during the Eocene period. One of the first true horse species, it
   had 4 toes on each front foot, and 3 toes on each back foot. By the
   Pleistocene era, as the horse adapted to a drier, prairie environment,
   the 2nd and 4th toes disappeared on all feet, and horses became bigger.
   These side toes first shrunk in size until they have vanished in modern
   horses. All that remains are a set of small vestigial bones on either
   side of the cannon ( metacarpal or metatarsal) bone, known informally
   as splint bones, which are a frequent source of splints, a common
   injury in the modern horse. Their legs also lengthened as their toes
   disappeared and until they were a hoofed animal capable of running at
   great speed.

   Over millions of years, equid teeth also evolved from browsing on soft,
   tropical plants to adapt to browsing of drier plant material, and
   grazing of tougher plains grasses. Thus the proto-horses changed from
   leaf-eating forest-dwellers to grass-eating inhabitants of semi-arid
   regions worldwide, including the steppes of Eurasia and the Great
   Plains of North America. For reasons not fully understood, Equus
   caballus disappeared from North America around 10,000 years ago, at the
   end of the last Ice Age.

Domestication and surviving wild species

   Competing theories exist as to the time and place of initial
   domestication. The earliest evidence for the domestication of the horse
   comes from Central Asia and dates to approximately 4,500 BC.
   Archaeological finds such as the Sintashta chariot burials provided
   unequivocal evidence that the horse was definitely domesticated by 2000
   BC.

Wild prototypes and modern species

   Most "wild" horses today are actually feral horses (see feral horses,
   below), animals that had domesticated ancestors but were themselves
   born and live in the wild, often for generations. However, there are
   also some truly wild horses whose ancestors were never successfully
   domesticated.

The "Four Foundations" theory

   Przewalski's Horse, the last surviving wild horse species
   Przewalski's Horse, the last surviving wild horse species

   There is a theory that there were four basic "proto" horses that
   developed with adaptations to their environment prior to domestication.
   There are competing theories, some arguing that the prototypes were
   separate species, others suggesting that the prototypes were physically
   different manifestations of the same species. Either way, the most
   common theories of historical wild species from which other types are
   thought to have developed suggests the following base prototypes:
     * The "Warmblood subspecies" or "Forest Horse" (Equus ferus
       silvaticus, also called the Diluvial Horse), thought to have
       evolved into Equus ferus germanicus, and which may have contributed
       to the development of the warmblood horses of northern Europe, as
       well as older "heavy horses" such as the Ardennais.
     * The "Draft" subspecies, a small, sturdy, heavyset animal with a
       heavy hair coat, arising in northern Europe, adapted to cold, damp
       climates, somewhat resembling today's draft horse and even the
       Shetland pony
     * The "Oriental" subspecies, a taller, slim, refined and agile animal
       arising in western Asia, adapted to hot, dry climates, thought to
       be the progenitor of the modern Arabian horse and Akhal-Teke
     * The "Tarpan subspecies," dun-colored, sturdy animal, the size of a
       large pony, adapted to the cold, dry climates of northern Asia, the
       predecessor to the Tarpan and Przewalski's Horse as well as the
       domesticated Mongolian horse.

Species surviving into modern times

   The tarpan, Equus ferus ferus, survived into the historical era, but
   became extinct in 1880. Its genetic line is lost, but its phenotype has
   been recreated by a " breeding back" process, in which living
   domesticated horses with primitive features were repeatedly interbred.
   Thanks to the efforts of the brothers Lutz Heck (director of the Berlin
   zoo) and Heinz Heck (director of Munich Tierpark Hellabrunn), the
   resulting Heck horse together with the Konik resembles the tarpan more
   closely than any other living horse.

   Przewalski's Horse (Equus ferus przewalskii), a rare Asian species, is
   the only true wild horse alive today. Also known as the Mongolian Wild
   Horse, Mongolians know it as the taki, while the Kirghiz people call it
   a kirtag. Small wild breeding populations of this animal, named after
   the Russian explorer Przewalski, exist in Mongolia. There are also
   small populations maintained at zoos throughout the world. After a
   battle against extinction, the Przewalksi's Horse is finally
   flourishing in the wild once again.

   Other truly wild equids alive today include the zebra and the onager.

Feral horses

   Free-roaming mustangs (Utah, 2005)
   Free-roaming mustangs (Utah, 2005)

   Feral animals, who had domesticated ancestors but were born and live in
   the wild, are distinct from wild animals, whose ancestors have never
   undergone domestication. Several populations of feral horses exist,
   including those in the western United States and Canada (often called "
   mustangs"), and in parts of Australia (" brumbies") and New Zealand ("
   Kaimanawa horses"). Isolated feral populations are often named for
   their geographic location: Namibia has its Namib Desert Horses; the
   Sorraia lives in Spain and Portugal; Sable Island Horses reside in Nova
   Scotia, Canada; and New Forest ponies have been part of Hampshire,
   England for a thousand years.

   Studies of feral horses have provided useful insights into the
   behaviour of ancestral wild horses, as well as greater understanding of
   the instincts and behaviours that drive horses.

Other modern equids

   Other members of the horse family include zebras, donkeys, and onagers.
   The Donkey, Burro or Domestic Ass, Equus asinus, like the horse, has
   many breeds. A mule is a hybrid of a male ass (jack) and a mare, and is
   usually infertile. A hinny is the less common hybrid of a female ass
   (jenny) and a stallion. Breeders have also tried crossing various
   species of zebra with mares or female asses to produce "zebra mules" (
   zorses, and zonkeys (also called zedonks)). This will probably remain a
   novelty hybrid as these individuals tend to inherit some of the
   undomesticated nature of their zebra parent, but they may inherit the
   zebra's resistance to nagana pest: zorses, also called zebroids, have
   been used in Central African game parks for light haulage.

Horses within the human economy

   Around the world, horses play a role within human economies, for
   leisure, sport and working purposes. To cite one example, the American
   Horse Council estimates that horse-related activities have a direct
   impact on the economy of the United States of over $39 billion, and
   when indirect spending is considered, the impact is over $102 billion.

   In wealthier, First World, industrialized economies, horses are
   primarily used in recreational pursuits and competitive sports, though
   they also have practical uses in police work, cattle ranching, search
   and rescue, and other duties where terrain or conditions preclude use
   of motorized vehicles. In poorer, Third World economies, they may also
   be used for recreational purposes by the elite population, but serve a
   much wider role in working pursuits including farming, ranching and as
   a means of transportation. To a very limited extent, they are also
   still used in warfare, particularly in regions of extremely rugged
   terrain.

Sport

   A youth competitor show jumping in Denmark
   A youth competitor show jumping in Denmark

   Horses are trained to be ridden or driven in many different sporting
   events and competitions. Examples include horse shows, gymkhana and
   O-Mok-See, rodeos, endurance riding, fox hunting, and Olympic-level
   events such as three-day eventing, combined driving, dressage, and show
   jumping. Although scoring varies by event, most emphasize the horse's
   speed, maneuverability, obedience and/or precision. Sometimes the
   equitation, the style and ability of the rider, is also considered.

   Sports such as polo and horseball do not judge the horse itself, but
   rather use the horse as a partner for human competitors as a necessary
   part of the game. Although the horse assists this process and requires
   specialized training to do so, the details of its performance are not
   judged, only the result of the rider's actions -- be it getting a ball
   through a goal or some other achievement. Examples of these sports of
   partnership between human and animal also include jousting (reenacting
   the skills used by medieval knights), where the main goal is for one
   rider to dismount the other, and buzkashi, a team game played
   throughout Central Asia, the aim being to capture a goat carcass while
   on horseback.

   The most widely known use of horses for sport is horse racing, seen in
   almost every nation in the world. There are three types: "flat" racing;
   steeplechasing, i.e. racing over jumps; and harness racing, where
   horses trot or pace while pulling a driver in a small, light cart known
   as a sulky. Most race horses in the developed world are Thoroughbreds,
   a breed which can reach speeds up to 40 mph/70 km/h. In the case of a
   specialized sprinting breed, the American Quarter Horse, speeds over 50
   mph have been clocked. In harness racing, performed by Standardbred
   horses, speeds over 30 mph have been measured. A major part of the
   economic importance of horse racing, as for many sports, lies in the
   gambling associated with it.

Work

   Horses used for carriage rides
   Horses used for carriage rides

   There are certain jobs that horses do very well, and no amount of
   technology appears able to supersede. Mounted police horses are still
   effective for crowd control. Cattle ranches still require riders on
   horseback to round up cattle that are scattered across remote, rugged
   terrain. Search and rescue organizations in some countries depend upon
   mounted teams to locate people, particularly hikers and hunters, who
   are lost in remote areas.

   Some land management practices such as logging can be more efficiently
   managed with horses, to avoid vehicular disruption to delicate soil in
   areas such as a nature reserve. Forestry rangers may use horses for
   their patrols.

   In poor countries such as Romania, Kyrgyzstan, and many parts of the
   Third World, horses, donkeys and mules are routinely used for transport
   and agriculture. In areas where roads are poor or non-existent and
   fossil fuels are scarce or the terrain rugged, riding horseback is
   still the most efficient way to get from place to place.

Entertainment and culture

   Modern horses are often used to re-enact their historical work purpose.
   One famous example is the Budweiser Clydesdales. This team of draft
   horses pull a beer wagon in a manner similar to that used prior to the
   invention of the modern motorized truck.

   Horses are used, complete with equipment that is authentic or a
   meticulously recreated replica, in various historical reenactments of
   specific periods of history, and especially famous battles. Popular
   subjects include American Revolutionary War and Civil War reenactments,
   as well as battles of the 19th century between the U.S. Cavalry and
   Native Americans, such as the Battle of the Little Bighorn.

   Horses also are used preserve cultural traditions and for ceremonial
   purposes. Examples include the use of horses at tourist destinations
   such as Colonial Williamsburg or the presence of cavalry horses at
   significant funerals of military figures and heads of state. Countries
   such as the United Kingdom still use horse-drawn carriages to convey
   royalty and VIPs to and from certain culturally significant events.

   Horses are frequently used in television and motion pictures to add
   authenticity to historical dramas as well as adding charm to films set
   in modern-day, or even futuristic science fiction settings.

Assisted learning and therapeutic purposes

   People with disabilities obtain beneficial results from association
   with horses. The movement of a horse strengthens muscles throughout a
   rider's body and promotes better overall health. In many cases, riding
   has also led to increased mobility for the rider. Horses also provide
   psychological benefits to people whether they actually ride or not. The
   benefits of equestrian activity for people with disabilities has also
   been recognized with the addition of equestrian events to the
   Paralympic Games and recognition of para-equestrian events by the FEI.

   Hippotherapy and therapeutic horseback riding are names for different
   physical, occupational and speech therapy treatment strategies that
   utilize equine movement. In the hippotherapy environment, a therapist
   uses the horse's movement to provide carefully graded sensory input,
   whereas therapeutic horseback riding uses specific riding skills.

   "Equine-assisted" or "equine-facilitated" psychotherapy uses horses as
   companion animals to assist people with psychological problems. Actual
   practices vary widely due to the newness of the field; some programs
   include Therapeutic Horseback Riding and hippotherapy. Non-riding
   therapies simply encourage a person to touch, speak to and otherwise
   interact with the horse. People appear to benefit from being able to be
   around a horse; horses are very sensitive to non-verbal communication
   and are an ideal resource for working with individuals who have "tuned
   out" human therapists.

   Equine Assisted Learning (EAL), Equine guided education, or equine
   assisted professional development, is another relatively new field of
   experiential learning for corporate, professional and personal
   development.

   There also have been experimental programs using horses in prison
   settings. Exposure to horses appears to improve the behaviour of
   inmates in a prison setting and help reduce recidivism when they leave.
   A correctional facility in Nevada has a successful program where
   inmates learn to train young mustangs captured off the range in order
   to make it more likely that these horses will find adoptive homes. Both
   adult and juvenile prisons in New York, Florida, and Kentucky work in
   cooperation with the Thoroughbred Retirement Foundation to re-train
   former racehorses as pleasure mounts and find them new homes. Horses
   are also used in camps and programs for young people with emotional
   difficulties.

Warfare

   Jousting is a sport that evolved out of heavy cavalry practice
   Jousting is a sport that evolved out of heavy cavalry practice

   Horses in warfare have been seen for most of recorded history, dating
   back at least to the 19th century B.C. While mechanization largely has
   replaced the horse as a weapon of war, horses are still seen today in
   limited military uses, mostly for ceremonial purposes, or for
   reconnaissance and transport activities in areas of rough terrain where
   motorized vehicles are ineffective. Horses have been used in the 21st
   century by the Janjaweed militias in the Darfur conflict in attacks
   against unarmed civilians.

Products

     * Horse meat has been used as food for animals and humans throughout
       the ages. It is eaten in many parts of the world and is an export
       industry in the United States and other countries. Bills have been
       introduced in both the House and the Senate which would put an end
       to this practice in the United States. Horse consumption is taboo
       in some cultures.

     * Mare's milk is used by people with large horse-herds, such as the
       Mongols. They may let it ferment to produce kumis. Mares produce a
       lower yield of milk than cows, but more than goats and sheep.

     * Horse blood was also used as food by the Mongols and other nomadic
       tribes. The Mongols found this food source especially convenient
       when riding for long periods of time. Drinking their own horse's
       blood allowed the Mongols to ride for extended periods of time
       without stopping to eat.

     * Premarin is a mixture of female hormones ( estrogens) extracted
       from the urine of pregnant mares (pregnant mares' urine). It is a
       widely used drug for hormone replacement therapy. This horse
       product is especially controversial; see the Premarin article.

     * The tail hair of the horse is used for making bows for stringed
       instruments such as the violin, viola, cello and double bass.

     * Horsehide leather has been used for boots, gloves, jackets,
       baseballs, and baseball gloves. The saba is a horsehide vessel used
       in the production of kumis. Horsehide can be used to produce animal
       glue.

     * Horse hooves can be used to produce hoof glue.

     * Horse bones can be used to make implements. Specifically, in
       Italian cuisine, the horse tibia is sharpened into a probe called a
       spinto, which is used to test the readiness of a (pig) ham as it
       cures.

Specialized vocabulary

   Parts of a horse
   Parts of a horse
   Morphology and Locomotive System of a Horse
   Morphology and Locomotive System of a Horse

   Because horses and humans have lived and worked together for thousands
   of years, an extensive specialized vocabulary has arisen to describe
   virtually every horse behavioural and anatomical characteristic with a
   high degree of precision.

   The anatomy of the horse comes with a large number of horse specific
   terms.

   Horses exhibit a diverse array of coat colors and distinctive markings,
   and a specialized vocabulary has evolved to describe them. Often, one
   will refer to a horse in the field by its coat colour rather than by
   breed or by sex. The genetics of the coat colors has largely been
   resolved, although discussion continues about some of the details.

   The English-speaking world measures the height of horses in hands,
   abbreviated "h" or "hh," and is measured at the highest point of an
   animal's withers. One hand is 4 Imperial inches, or, as defined in
   British law, 101.6 mm. Intermediate heights are defined by hands and
   inches, rounding to the lower measurement in hands, followed by a
   decimal point and the number of additional inches between 1 and 3. Thus
   a horse described as 15.2 hh tall, means it is 15 hands, 2 inches, or
   62 inches/1.57 m in height.

The origin of modern breeds

   Horses come in various sizes and shapes. The draft breeds can top 19
   hands (2 metres, 76 inches) while the smallest miniature horses stand
   as low as 5.2 hands (0.56 metres, 22 inches). The Patagonian
   Fallabella, usually considered the smallest horse in the world,
   compares in size to a German Shepherd Dog.

   Different schools of thought exist to explain how this range of size
   and shape came about. One school, which some refer to as the "Four
   Foundations", (see Domestication of the horse and surviving wild
   species, above), suggests that the modern horse evolved from multiple
   types of early wild pony and horse prototypes; the differences between
   these types account for the differences in type of the modern breeds. A
   second school - the "Single Foundation" - holds only one type of wild
   horse underwent domestication, and it diverged in form after
   domestication through human selective breeding (or in the case of feral
   horses, through ecological pressures). This question will most likely
   only be resolved once geneticists have finished evaluating the horse
   genome, analyzing DNA and mitochondrial DNA to construct family trees.
   See: Domestication of the horse.

   In either case, modern horse breeds developed in response to the need
   for "form to function"; that is, the necessity to develop certain
   physical characteristics necessary to perform a certain type of work.
   Thus, light, refined horses such as the Arabian horse or the Akhal-Teke
   developed in dry climates to be fast and with great endurance over long
   distances, while heavy draft horse such as the Belgian developed out of
   a need to pull plows and perform other farm work. Ponies of all breeds
   developed out of a dual need to create mounts suitable for children as
   well as for work in small places like mine shafts or in areas where
   there was insufficient forage to support larger draft animals. In
   between these extremes, horses were bred to be particularly suitable
   for tasks that included pulling carriages, carrying heavily-armored
   knights, jumping, racing, herding other animals, and packing supplies.

   Some countries specialize in breeding horses suitable for particular
   activities. For example, Australia, the United States, and the
   Patagonia region of South America are known for breeding horses
   particularly suitable for working cattle and other livestock. Germany
   produces many Warmblood breeds that are used for dressage. Ireland is
   recognized for breeding hunters and jumpers. Spain and Portugal are
   known for the Iberian horse breeds used in high school dressage and
   bullfighting. Austria is known worldwide for its Lipizzaner horses,
   used for dressage and high school work in the famous Spanish Riding
   School in Vienna. The United Kingdom breeds an array of heavy draft
   horses and several breeds of hardy ponies. Both the United States and
   Great Britain are noted for breeding Thoroughbred race horses. Russia
   takes great pride in breeding harness racing horses, a tradition dating
   back to the development of the Orlov Trotter in the 18th century.

Breeds, studbooks, purebreds, and landraces

   Selective breeding of horses has occurred as long as humans have
   domesticated them. However, the concept of controlled breed registries
   has gained much wider importance during the 20th century. One of the
   earliest formal registries was General Stud Book for thoroughbreds, a
   process that started in 1791 tracing back to the foundation sires for
   that breed. These sires were Arabians, brought to England from the
   Middle East.

   The Arabs had a reputation for breeding their prize Arabian mares to
   only the most worthy stallions, and kept extensive pedigrees of their "
   asil" (purebred) horses. Though these pedigrees were primarily
   transmitted via an oral tradition, written pedigrees of Arabian horses
   can be found that date to the 14th century. During the late Middle Ages
   the Carthusian monks of southern Spain, themselves forbidden to ride,
   bred horses which nobles throughout Europe prized; the lineage survives
   to this day in the Andalusian horse or caballo de pura raza espanol.

   The modern landscape of breed designation presents a complicated
   picture. Some breeds have closed studbooks; a registered Thoroughbred,
   Arabian, or Quarter Horse must have two registered parents of the same
   breed, and no other criteria for registration apply. Other breeds
   tolerate limited infusions from other breeds; for example, the modern
   Appaloosa must have at least one Appaloosa parent but may also have a
   Quarter Horse, Thoroughbred, or Arabian parent and must also exhibit
   spotted coloration to gain full registration. Still other breeds, such
   as most of the warmblood sport horses, require individual judging of an
   individual animal's quality before registration or breeding approval,
   but also allow outside bloodlines in if the horses meet the standard.

   Breed registries also differ as to their acceptance or rejection of
   breeding technology. For example, all Jockey Club Thoroughbred
   registries require that a registered Thoroughbred be a product of a
   natural mating (live cover in horse parlance). A foal born of two
   Thoroughbred parents, but by means of artificial insemination or embryo
   transfer is barred from the Thoroughbred studbook. Any Thoroughbred
   bred outside of these constraints can, however, become part of the
   Performance Horse Registry.

   On the other hand, since the advent of DNA testing to verify parentage,
   most breed registries now allow artificial insemination (AI), embryo
   transfer (ET), or both. The high value of stallions has helped with the
   acceptance of these techniques because they 1) allow a stallion to
   breed more mares with each "collection," and 2) take away the risk of
   injury during mating.

Hot bloods, warm bloods, and cold bloods

   Horses are mammals and as such are all warm-blooded creatures, as
   opposed to reptiles, which are cold-blooded. However, these words have
   developed a separate meaning in the context of equine description, with
   the "hot-bloods", such as race horses, exhibiting more sensitivity and
   energy, while the "cold-bloods" are heavier, calmer creatures such as
   the draft giants.

Hot bloods

   Arabian horses, whether originating on the Arabian peninsula or from
   the European studs (breeding establishments) of the 18th and 19th
   centuries, gained the title of "hot bloods" for their temperament,
   characterized by sensitivity, keen awareness, athleticism, and energy.
   European breeders wished to infuse some of this energy and athleticism
   into their own best cavalry horses. These traits, combined with the
   lighter, aesthetically refined bone structure of the oriental-type
   horse ( Akhal-Teke, Arabian, Barb), were used as the foundation of the
   thoroughbred breed.

   True hot bloods usually offer both greater riding challenges and
   rewards than other horses. Their sensitivity and intelligence enable
   quick learning with greater communication and cooperation with their
   riders. However, their intelligence also allows them to learn bad
   habits as quickly as good ones. Because of this, they also can quickly
   lose trust in a poor rider and do not tolerate inept or abusive
   training practices.

Cold bloods

   A Percheron draft horse
   A Percheron draft horse

   Muscular and heavy draft horses are known as "cold bloods", as they
   have been bred to have the calm, steady, patient temperament needed to
   pull a plow or a heavy carriage full of people. One of the best-known
   draft breeds is the Belgian. The largest is the Shire. The Clydesdales,
   with their common coloration of a bay or black coat with white legs and
   long-haired, "feathered" fetlocks are among the most easily recognized.

Warmbloods

   " Warmblood" breeds began when the European carriage and war horses
   were crossed with oriental horses or thoroughbreds. The term " warm
   blood" was originally used to mean any cross of heavy horses on
   Thoroughbred or Arabian horses. Examples included breeds such as the
   Irish Draught horse, and sometimes also referred to the "Baroque"
   horses used for "high school" dressage, such as the Lipizzaner,
   Andalusian, Lusitano and the Alter Real. Sometimes the term was even
   used to refer to breeds of light riding horse other than Thoroughbreds
   or Arabians, such as the Morgan horse. But today the term "warmblood"
   usually refers to a group of sport horse breeds that have dominated the
   Olympic Games and World Equestrian Games in Dressage and Show Jumping
   since the 1950s. These breeds include the Hanoverian, Oldenburg,
   Trakehner, Holsteiner, Swedish Warmblood, and Dutch Warmblood.

   The list of horse breeds provides a partial alphabetical list of breeds
   of horse extant today, plus a discussion of rare breeds' conservation.

Riding methods

Saddling and mounting

   The common European practice and tradition of saddling and mounting the
   horse from the left hand side is widely believed to originate from the
   practice of right-handed fighters carrying their sheathed sword on
   their left hip, making it easier to throw their right leg over the
   horse when mounting. However, several other explanations are equally
   also plausible.

   Horses can be mounted bareback with a vault from the ground, by
   grabbing the mane to provide leverage as a rider makes a small jump and
   scrambles up onto the horse's back (an awkward but popular method used
   by children), or by "bellying over", a technique which involves placing
   both hands side by side on the horse's back, jumping up so that the
   rider lays belly down on the horse's back, and swinging the leg over to
   sit astride. In actual practice, however, most bareback riders use a
   fence, mounting block, or other object which can be stood upon to be
   able to simply slide onto the horse's back. This method is more
   convenient for both horse and rider, as the horse is more comfortable
   not being accidentally jabbed by the legs and arms of the rider, and
   any method of mounting without a saddle can be difficult for the rider,
   especially if the horse is tall.

Control of the horse

   Riders communicate with the horse through commands called aids. The
   main natural aids of the rider are the legs, the seat, the hands
   (through the reins) and the voice (used less often than other aids).
   The rider's legs generally tell the horse to move forward or to turn.
   The hands help to guide the horse in the direction of the turn, and ask
   the horse to either slow his tempo or to slow from a faster gait to a
   slower one. The seat is the most difficult aid to develop, and can
   communicate to the horse not only to speed up, but also to turn and
   slow down.

   Correct position allows for the rider to communicate effectively
   without getting in the way of the horse. Additionally, the position is
   slightly modified according to the type of riding that is being
   preformed. Like most arts, riding takes years of practice to become
   competent, as the riders work to refine their aids and position, and
   learn "feel" (or what the horse is doing underneath them).

Types of riding

   Since the horse was domesticated, a wide variety of riding methods or
   styles have developed, all of which balance the need to allow the horse
   freedom of movement in activities such as horse racing or show jumping
   and the need for security of the rider, precision of commands and
   overall control as seen in activities such as dressage and reining.
   Worldwide, the most common modern riding style is referred to as
   English riding, which is a broad style that encompasses most Olympic
   Equestrian competition, and includes such specific styles as dressage,
   hunt seat, show jumping and saddle seat, among many others. Western
   riding is a popular style seen in North America, derived from the
   traditions of Spain, modified to fit the needs of cattle ranchers. A
   similar riding style is seen with the Stockman of Australia.
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