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Hrafnkels saga

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: General Literature

   The first page of Hrafnkels saga from the Árni Magnússon Institute ÁM.
   156, fol. — one of the saga's most important manuscripts, dating from
   the 17th century.
   Enlarge
   The first page of Hrafnkels saga from the Árni Magnússon Institute ÁM.
   156, fol. — one of the saga's most important manuscripts, dating from
   the 17th century.

   Hrafnkels saga ( [ˈr̥apncɛls ˌsaːɣa] ) is one of the Icelanders' sagas.
   It tells of struggles between chieftains and farmers in the east of
   Iceland in the 10th century. The eponymous main character, Hrafnkell,
   starts out his career as a fearsome duellist and a dedicated worshipper
   of the god Freyr. After suffering defeat, humiliation, and the
   destruction of his temple, he becomes an atheist. His character changes
   and he becomes more peaceful in dealing with others. After gradually
   rebuilding his power base for several years, he achieves revenge
   against his enemies and lives out the rest of his life as a powerful
   and respected chieftain. The saga has been interpreted as the story of
   a man who arrives at the conclusion that the true basis of power does
   not lie in the favour of the gods but in the loyalty of one's
   subordinates.

   The saga remains widely read today and is appreciated for its logical
   structure, plausibility, and vivid characters. For these reasons, it
   has served as a test case in the dispute on the origins of the
   Icelandic sagas.

Synopsis

   This iron age axe head, discovered in Gotland, may have resembled those
   used in Iceland in the 10th century.
   Enlarge
   This iron age axe head, discovered in Gotland, may have resembled those
   used in Iceland in the 10th century.

   We learn of the Norwegian man Hallfreðr who becomes one of the original
   settlers of Iceland, arriving on the east coast around the year 900
   with his teenage son Hrafnkell, a promising young man. Hrafnkell has
   ambition and soon – with the permission of his father – establishes his
   own settlement. He selects an uninhabited valley for his farm and names
   it Aðalból (Noble home). The valley subsequently receives the name
   Hrafnkelsdalr (Hrafnkell's valley).

   Hrafnkell also has a large temple erected and performs lavish
   sacrificial ceremonies. He dedicates the best of his livestock to his
   patron deity Freyr, including his favourite horse, Freyfaxi. He swears
   that he will kill anyone who rides Freyfaxi without permission. From
   his religious activities Hrafnkell comes to be known as Freysgoði
   (Freyr's goði).

   Hrafnkell longs for power and soon establishes himself as a chieftain
   by bullying people in neighbouring valleys. He has a penchant for duels
   and never pays wergild for anyone he kills.

   Now the saga introduces Einarr, a shepherd of Hrafnkell's. On one
   occasion Einarr needs to ride to perform his duties, but every horse he
   approaches runs away from him except Freyfaxi. He then takes Freyfaxi
   and rides him for the day. But after the horse has been ridden it runs
   home to Aðalból and starts neighing. On seeing his horse dirty and wet
   with sweat, Hrafnkell realises what has happened. He rides out with his
   axe and reluctantly kills Einarr to fulfil his oath.
   Although the Norse god Freyr functions as Hrafnkell's patron deity, the
   saga contains few supernatural elements.
   Enlarge
   Although the Norse god Freyr functions as Hrafnkell's patron deity, the
   saga contains few supernatural elements.

   Einarr's father, Þorbjörn, upset at the death of his son, goes to
   Hrafnkell to seek wergild. Hrafnkell tells him that he pays wergild for
   no man. He does, however, think that this killing was among the worst
   he has done and is prepared to make some amends. He makes a seemingly
   favourable offer to Þorbjörn of taking care of him for the rest of his
   days.

   Þorbjörn, however, wants nothing short of a formal settlement as
   between equals. Upon Hrafnkell's rejection of this, Þorbjörn starts
   searching for ways to achieve satisfaction. The laws of the Icelandic
   Commonwealth guarantee every free man the same rights — but since no
   central executive power exists, a common man would have difficulty in
   prosecuting a chieftain. He would generally need the support of another
   chieftain, both for the complicated legal manoeuvring often necessary
   and, if successful at the assembly, for subsequently enforcing the
   verdict.
   Norse settlers brought horses to Iceland, and they feature in a number
   of the sagas. The Icelandic horse has remained isolated since mediaeval
   times and has missed out on the selective breeding received by its
   continental kin.
   Enlarge
   Norse settlers brought horses to Iceland, and they feature in a number
   of the sagas. The Icelandic horse has remained isolated since mediaeval
   times and has missed out on the selective breeding received by its
   continental kin.

   Þorbjörn tries to get the support of his brother Bjarni, but the latter
   doesn't want to become involved in a dispute with the powerful
   Hrafnkell. Þorbjörn then goes to Bjarni's son, Sámr. He, in turn, first
   advises Þorbjörn to accept Hrafnkell's offer but Þorbjörn remains
   adamant. Sámr has no desire to join the conflict, but after his uncle
   gets emotional he reluctantly agrees. Sámr formally accepts the case
   from Þorbjörn so that he effectively becomes the plaintiff.

   Sámr starts preparing the case against Hrafnkell and summons him to the
   Alþing the next summer. Hrafnkell regards the attempt as laughable.
   When Sámr and Þorbjörn reach the assembly at Þingvellir they quickly
   discover that no major chieftain wants to aid them. The emotional
   Þorbjörn now wants to give up, but Sámr insists they must proceed one
   way or the other.

   By a coincidence Sámr and Þorbjörn meet Þorkell, a young adventurer
   from Vestfirðir (West fjords). He sympathises with their cause and
   helps them achieve the support of his brother Þorgeirr, a powerful
   chieftain. With Þorgeirr's support Sámr competently prosecutes the
   case. The law finds Hrafnkell guilty, and he rides home to Aðalból.
   Sámr now has the right to kill Hrafnkell and confiscate his property.
   One early morning Sámr, supported by Þorgeirr and Þorkell, arrives at
   Aðalból, surprising and capturing Hrafnkell while he sleeps.
   Hrafnkels saga spans a large part of Iceland.
   Enlarge
   Hrafnkels saga spans a large part of Iceland.

   Sámr offers Hrafnkell two options: firstly execution on the spot; or
   secondly to live as Sámr's subordinate, stripped of his honour and most
   of his property. Hrafnkell chooses to live. Þorkell^1 cautions Sámr
   that he will regret sparing Hrafnkell's life.

   Sámr subsequently takes up residence at Aðalból and invites the locals
   for a feast. They agree to accept him as their new chieftain.

   Hrafnkell builds himself a new home in another valley. His spirits and
   ambition remain unbroken, and after a few years of hard work he has
   again established himself as a respectable farmer.

   Þorkell and Þorgeirr decide to "deliver Freyfaxi to his owner" and push
   him off a cliff. They also set fire to Hrafnkell's temple. Upon hearing
   this Hrafnkell remarks: I think it is folly to have faith in gods, and
   he never performs another sacrifice. His manner improves and he becomes
   much gentler with his subordinates. In this way he gains popularity and
   loyalty.^2

   After six years of peace Hrafnkell decides the time for revenge has
   come. He receives news that Sámr's brother, Eyvindr, is travelling
   close by with a few companions. He gathers his own men and goes to
   attack him. Sámr gets word of the battle and immediately rides out with
   a small force to aid his brother. They arrive too late.
   Family relationships have a fundamental importance in many sagas.
   Enlarge
   Family relationships have a fundamental importance in many sagas.

   The next morning Hrafnkell surprises Sámr when he is asleep and offers
   him a similar choice to the one he had received from him six years
   before, with no wergild paid for Eyvindr. Like Hrafnkell, Sámr also
   chooses to live. Hrafnkell then takes up residence at Aðalból, his old
   home, and resumes the duties of a chieftain.

   Sámr rides west and again seeks the support of Þorkell and Þorgeirr,
   but they tell him he has only himself to blame for his misfortune. He
   should have killed Hrafnkell when he had the chance. They will not
   support Sámr in another struggle with Hrafnkell but offer him to move
   his residence to their region. He refuses and rides back home. Sámr
   lives as Hrafnkell's subordinate for the rest of his days, never
   achieving revenge.

   Hrafnkell, on the other hand, lives as a respected leader till he meets
   a peaceful end. His sons become chieftains after his day.^3

From writer to reader

Preservation

   The author of Hrafnkels saga remains completely unidentified. The text
   does not name him; nor does any other extant source. He was, however,
   certainly an Icelander and probably lived near the area which serves as
   the setting for the saga's events.

   The precise time of composition of the saga also remains unknown, but
   the late 13th century seems most likely. The oldest extant manuscript
   uses vellum from the first half of the 15th century, but unfortunately
   only one page remains. Paper copies made from the complete manuscript
   preserve the full text of the saga. The partially extant skin
   manuscript may well have copied the original composition directly. In
   any case the saga seems well preserved, with little rewriting and few
   accidental errors.
   Hrafnkels saga survives in many manuscripts, but only about seven have
   significance for establishing the most original text.
   Enlarge
   Hrafnkels saga survives in many manuscripts, but only about seven have
   significance for establishing the most original text.

   One class of paper manuscripts, C and C1 in the diagram, contains a
   slightly different version of the saga with several, mostly minor,
   additions. Most scholars have considered it as derived from the same
   vellum manuscript as the others with additions from the author of
   Fljótsdæla saga. Thus they believe the shorter text closer to the
   original, and have given scant attention to the extended version.

Publishing history

   P. G. Thorsen and Konráð Gíslason gave the saga its first publication,
   in Copenhagen in 1839. Other important scholarly editions include those
   of J. Jakobsen in 1902-1903 and of Jón Jóhannesson in 1950.

   The saga has seen many popular editions and translations into a number
   of languages. The popular edition published by Halldór Laxness in 1942
   caused a stir as the first to use modern Icelandic spelling for a text
   in Old Icelandic. The edition's detractors rejected this approach as a
   perversion of the original text. Its supporters in response depicted
   the standardised Old Norse spelling as an artificial construct -- no
   closer to the actual manuscripts than the modern spelling -- and an
   unnecessary burden to the casual reader. The latter view won out and
   the sagas have since frequently appeared using modern spelling
   conventions.

Modern reception

   Today Hrafnkels saga remains one of the most widely read sagas. Readers
   especially appreciate it for its cohesive and logical story line; along
   with its shortness, these qualities make it an ideal first read for
   newcomers to the sagas. It has served as a standard text in Icelandic
   high schools and as an introductory text for students of Old Norse.
   Sigurður Nordal called it "one of the most perfect short novels in
   world literature".

Origins

   Precisely the attributes which make Hrafnkels saga so accessible have
   served to make it an attractive target for different theories on the
   origins of the Icelandic sagas. Identical elements sometimes serve to
   support widely different theories.

History

   Some commentators have seen the sagas as largely historical accounts,
   preserved orally for hundreds of years until committed to writing by
   faithful scribes. Scholars in the 19th century especially espoused this
   view; it largely went out of fashion in academia by around 1940,
   although many amateurs still hold to it.

   Many see Hrafnkels saga as a prime example of accurately preserved oral
   history. They find the saga inherently plausible in that its characters
   have logical motivations and the results of their actions are
   realistic. The text has little supernatural content. It is short enough
   and cohesive enough for its oral preservation to be entirely plausible.
   Indeed the average modern reader can probably retell the story
   accurately after two or three readings.

   But the historical interpretation ran into several problems. When
   compared with other sources on the same period, notably Landnámabók,
   discrepancies spring up. As one example, Landnámabók tells us that
   Hrafnkell had a father named Hrafn, but the saga names him Hallfreðr.
   The saga's treatment of the laws of the time also shows inconsistencies
   with reliable sources.

Literature

   The historical inconsistencies and other difficulties led Sigurður
   Nordal to write his groundbreaking book Hrafnkatla in 1940. He greatly
   expands upon previous criticism on the saga and draws on data from many
   areas to cast doubt on its historical veracity.

   Aside from the conflicts with Landnámabók and the laws of the time,
   Sigurður argues that the saga treats geographical facts incorrectly. He
   claims that the valleys used as the ostensible settings for the events
   of the story would never have allowed for as great a population as the
   saga assumes. He also states that the cliff near Aðalból, the alleged
   site of the killing of Freyfaxi, simply doesn't exist.

   Sigurður sees the saga's convincing narrative and characters as
   evidence that a single brilliant author composed it. According to
   Sigurður the author cared little for historical accuracy, and insofar
   as he may have used any written historical sources, he changed them
   according to his own whim to fit the plot of the novella he wanted to
   write.

Folklore

   Another school of thought regarding the origin of the sagas, which came
   into prominence in the second half of the 20th century, emphasises the
   elements of folklore and the oral survival of legends for an extended
   period of time.

   In some ways this marks a return to the old idea of oral preservation
   of the sagas, but the folklorists do not necessarily focus on
   historical accuracy. They apply modern research to determine which
   elements of a story seem likely to endure and which seem ephemeral.
   Theory suggests that core story lines of the sagas will preserve oral
   elements long-term, whereas one can expect details – such as the names
   of secondary characters – to change over the centuries.

   The Icelandic scholar Óskar Halldórsson wrote a short book on Hrafnkels
   saga criticising Sigurður Nordal's previous work. According to Óskar
   such details as an incorrect name for Hrafnkell's father do not
   constitute valid evidence for the view of the saga as a 13th-century
   fiction. On the contrary, Óskar takes this as confirmation that the
   story of Hrafnkell survived independently in the east of Iceland, and
   changed in unimportant details, long after the composition of
   Landnámabók.

   Óskar traces the story of Freyfaxi back to horse-worship among
   Indo-European peoples, and in his opinion such mythic or folkloric
   themes strengthen the case for the oral preservation of elements of
   Hrafnkels saga since heathen times.

Recent views

   The controversy on Hrafnkels saga remains unsettled. In a 1988 book,
   Hermann Pálsson again completely dismisses the idea of an oral
   tradition and seeks the origins of the saga in mediaeval European
   ideas. In a departure from previous scholarship, Hermann based his
   research on the extended version of the saga.

   Jón Hnefill Aðalsteinsson, in his 2000 book on the saga, emphasises its
   heathen religious elements. While acknowledging that a large part of
   the story line probably represents 13th-century fiction, Jón Hnefill
   finds evidence of an oral tradition in such aspects of the story as
   Hrafnkell's sacrifices and the behaviour of Freyfaxi.

   Jónas Kristjánsson, in his 1988 work on the sagas, summed up the
   argument on Hrafnkels saga when he said that the great interest in it
   "has led to deeper consideration of other texts ... It has become a
   test-case, the classic example, in the discussion of relations between
   unsophisticated oral story-telling and learned well-read authors,
   between inherited pragmatic attitudes and imported Christian ethics."

English translations

     * Coles, John (translator) (1882). "The Story of Hrafnkell, Frey's
       Priest" in Summer Travellings in Iceland pp. 230-49. London.
     * Jones, Gwyn (translator) (1935). "Hrafnkel Freysgodi's Saga" in
       Four Icelandic Sagas pp. 37-61. New York.
     * McGaillard, John C (translator) (1956). "Hrafnkel's saga" in World
       Masterpieces pp. 512-32. New York.
     * Jones, Gwyn (translator) (1961). "Hrafnkel the Priest of Frey" in
       Eirik the Red and other Icelandic Sagas pp. 89-125. Oxford.
     * Hermann Pálsson (translator) (1971). Hrafnkel's saga and other
       Icelandic stories. Penguin.
     * Gunnell, Terry (translator) (1997). "The Saga of Hrafnkel Frey's
       Godi" in The Complete Sagas of Icelanders vol. V, pp. 261-81.
       Leifur Eiríksson Publishing.

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