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International English

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Languages

   International English is the concept of the English language as a
   global means of communication in numerous dialects, and the movement
   towards an international standard for the language. It is also referred
   to as Global English, World English, Common English, General English or
   Standard English. Sometimes these terms refer simply to the array of
   varieties of English spoken throughout the world; sometimes they refer
   to a desired standardisation. However, consensus on the terminology and
   path to standardisation has not been reached.

Historical context

   The modern concept of International English does not exist in
   isolation, but is the product of centuries of development of the
   English language.

   The language of England came to dominance throughout the island of
   Great Britain during the Middle Ages and in Ireland during the 18th
   century and, especially, the 19th century. In the modern era, printing
   led to the gradual standardisation of English, and particularly the use
   of the prestige dialect of the English ruling classes.

   The establishment of the first permanent English-speaking colony in
   North America in 1607 was a major step towards the globalisation of the
   language. British English was only partially standardised when the
   American colonies were established. Isolated from each other by the
   Atlantic Ocean, the dialects in England and the colonies began evolving
   independently. The differences between American English and British
   English were then magnified by choices made by the first influential
   lexicographers (dictionary writers) on each side of the Atlantic. While
   spellings such as "center" and "colour" had been common in both North
   America and England since the time of Shakespeare, Samuel Johnson's
   dictionary of 1755 greatly favored Norman-influenced spellings. On the
   other hand, Noah Webster's first guide to American spelling, published
   in 1783, moved sharply away from the Norman-influenced spellings. The
   difference in strategy and philosophy of Johnson and Webster are what
   gave rise to the main division in English spelling that exists today.

   In the 18th century, the standardisation of British English was more
   settled than it had been in the previous century, and this relatively
   well-established English was brought to Africa, Asia and Oceania. It
   developed both as the language of English-speaking settlers from
   Britain and Ireland, and as the administrative language imposed on
   speakers of other languages in the various parts of the British Empire.
   The first form can be seen in New Zealand English, and the latter in
   Indian English. The term Commonwealth English refers to these groups of
   English dialects.

   The English-speaking regions of Canada and the Caribbean are caught
   between historical connections with the UK and the Commonwealth, and
   geographical and economic connections with the U.S. In some things, and
   more formally, they tend to follow British standards, whereas in others
   they follow the U.S. standard.

   More recently, American English has become predominant as the preferred
   version of English in many countries that previously either had no
   preferred form, or preferred some variant of British English. Since
   World War II, for example, Japan has generally used American English.

   The ebb and flow between the standardisation of the language and its
   diversification have been ever present throughout its history. The
   flagship of the former is intelligibility and practicality, while the
   latter has cultural autonomy and flexibility.

Methods of promotion

   Unlike proponents of constructed languages, International English
   proponents face on the one hand the belief that English already is a
   world language (and as such, nothing needs to be done to promote it
   further) and, on the other, the belief that an international language
   would inherently need to be a constructed one (e.g., Esperanto in
   Chinese is generally just referred to as "shijie yu" or "world
   language"). In such an environment, at least four basic approaches have
   been proposed or employed toward the further expansion or consolidation
   of International English, some in contrast with, and others in
   opposition to, methods used to advance constructed international
   auxiliary languages.
    1. Laissez-faire approach. This approach is taken either out of
       ignorance of the other approaches or out of a belief that English
       will more quickly (or with less objections) become a more fully
       international language without any specific global legislation.
    2. Institutional sponsorship and grass-roots promotion of language
       programs. Some governments have promoted the spead of the English
       language through sponsorship of English language programs abroad,
       without any attempt to gain formal international endorsement, as
       have grass-roots individuals and organizations supporting English
       (whether through instruction, marketing, etc.).
    3. National legislation. This approach encourages countries to
       enshrine English as having at least some kind of official status,
       in the belief that this would further its spread and could include
       more countries over time.
    4. International legislation. This approach involves promotion of the
       future holding of a binding international convention (perhaps to be
       under the auspices of such international organizations as the
       United Nations or Inter-Parliamentary Union) to formally agree upon
       an official international auxiliary language which would then be
       taught in all schools around the world, beginning at the primary
       level. While this approach allows for the possibility of an
       alternative to English being chosen (due to its necessarily
       democratic approach), the approach also allows for the eventuality
       that English would be chosen by a sufficient majority of the
       proposed convention's delegates so as to put international opinion
       and law behind the language and thus to consolidate it as a full
       official world language.

Modern global language

   There is a distinction between English as spoken as a native language
   around the world (for example in Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom,
   and the United States) and as a non-native language spoken as a
   national (for example in India), regional or global lingua franca.

   A second distinction is made between those countries where non-native
   or semi-native English has official or historical importance (special
   significance, for example, in Pakistan and Uganda), and those where it
   does not (for example, in Japan and Peru).

   In the terminology of English language teaching (ELT), we have:
     * English as a native language (ENL), also called first language
       (L1).
     * English as an additional language (EAL) or English for speakers of
       other languages (ESOL), which can be divided into:
          + English as a second language (ESL) in an environment where
            English has a special significance, also called second
            language (L2).
          + English as a foreign language (EFL) in places where it has no
            special significance, also called third language (L3).

   For further information, see English language teaching.

   English as a second language might refer either to acquisition of the
   language in India, where it is a prominent regional lingua franca, or
   the acquisition of the language by a speaker of another language in a
   predominantly English-speaking country (a Brazilian living in Barbados,
   for instance). It may not be an individual's actual second language,
   but perhaps third or fourth. Roger Nunn considers different types of
   competence in relation to the teaching of English as an International
   Language, arguing that linguistic competence has yet to be adequately
   addressed in recent considerations of EIL.

   In the context of language teaching, English as an additional language
   (EAL) usually is based on the standards of either British/Commonwealth
   English or American English. English as an international language (EIL)
   is EAL with emphasis on learning different major dialect forms; in
   particular, it aims to equip students with the linguistic tools to
   communicate internationally.

Varying concepts

Universality and flexibility

   International English sometimes refers to English as it is actually
   being used and developed in the world; as a language owned not just by
   native speakers, but by all those who come to use it.

     Basically, it covers the English language at large, often (but not
     always or necessarily) implicitly seen as standard. It is certainly
     also commonly used in connection with the acquisition, use, and
     study of English as the world's lingua franca ('TEIL: Teaching
     English as an International Language'), and especially when the
     language is considered as a whole in contrast with American English,
     British English, South African English, and the like. — McArthur
     (2002, p. 444–45)

   It especially means English words and phrases generally understood
   throughout the English-speaking world as opposed to localisms. The
   importance of non-native English language skills can be recognised
   behind the long-standing joke that the international language of
   science and technology is broken English.

Neutrality

   International English reaches towards cultural neutrality. This has a
   practical use:

     "What could be better than a type of English that saves you from
     having to re-edit publications for individual regional markets!
     Teachers and learners of English as a second language also find it
     an attractive idea — both often concerned that their English should
     be neutral, without British or American or Canadian or Australian
     colouring. Any regional variety of English has a set of political,
     social and cultural connotations attached to it, even the so-called
     'standard' forms." — Peters (2004, International English)

   According to this viewpoint, International English is a concept of
   English that minimises the aspects defined by either the colonial
   imperialism of Victorian Britain or the so-called " cultural
   imperialism" of the 20th century United States. While British
   colonialism laid the foundation for English over much of the world,
   International English is a product of an emerging world culture, very
   much attributable to the influence of the United States as well, but
   conceptually based on a far greater degree of cross-talk and linguistic
   transculturation, which tends to mitigate both U.S. influence and
   British colonial influence.

   The development of International English often centres around academic
   and scientific communities, where formal English usage is prevalent,
   and creative and flowery use of the language is at a minimum. This
   formal International English allows entry into Western culture as a
   whole and Western cultural values in general.

Opposition

   The continued growth of the English language itself is seen by many as
   a kind of cultural imperialism, whether it is English in one form or
   English in two slightly different forms.

   Robert Phillipson argues against the possibility of such neutrality in
   his Linguistic Imperialism (1992). Learners who wish to use purportedly
   correct English are in fact faced with the dual standard of American
   English and British English, and other less known standard Englishes
   (namely Australian and Canadian).

   Edward Trimnell, author of Why You Need a Foreign Language & How to
   Learn One (2005) argues that the international version of English is
   only adequate for communicating basic ideas. For complex discussions
   and business/technical situations, English is not an adequate
   communication tool for non-native speakers of the language. Trimnell
   also asserts that native English-speakers have become "dependent on the
   language skills of others" by placing their faith in international
   English.

Appropriation theory

   There are also some who reject both linguistic imperialism and David
   Crystal's theory of the neutrality of English. They argue that the
   phenomenon of the global spread of English is better understood in the
   framework of appropriation (e.g. Spichtinger 2000), that is, English
   used for local purposes around the world. Demonstrators in non-English
   speaking countries often use signs in English to convey their demands
   to TV-audiences around the globe, for instance.

   In English language teaching Bobda shows how Cameroon has moved away
   from a mono-cultural, Anglo-centred way of teaching English and has
   gradually appropriated teaching material to a Cameroonian context. Non
   Western-topics treated are, for instance, the rule of Emirs,
   traditional medicine or polygamy (1997:225). Kramsch and Sullivan
   (1996) describe how Western methodology and textbooks have been
   appropriated to suit local Vietnamese culture. The Pakistani textbook
   "Primary Stage English" includes lessons such as "Pakistan My Country",
   "Our Flag", or "Our Great Leader" (Malik 1993: 5,6,7) which might well
   sound jingoistic to Western ears. Within the native culture, however,
   establishing a connection between ELT, patriotism and Muslim faith is
   seen as one of the aims of ELT, as the chairman of the Punjab Textbook
   Board openly states: "The board...takes care, through these books to
   inoculate in the students a love of the Islamic values and awareness to
   guard the ideological frontiers of your [the students] home lands"
   (Punjab Text Book Board 1997).

Many Englishes

   There are many difficult choices that have to be made if there is to be
   further standardisation of English in the future. These include the
   choice over whether to adopt a current standard, or move towards a more
   neutral, but artificial one. A true International English might
   supplant both current American and British English as a variety of
   English for international communication, leaving these as local
   dialects, or would rise from a merger of General American and standard
   British English with admixture of other varieties of English and would
   generally replace all these varieties of English.

     We may, in due course, all need to be in control of two standard
     Englishes—the one which gives us our national and local identity,
     and the other which puts us in touch with the rest of the human
     race. In effect, we may all need to become bilingual in our own
     language. — David Crystal (1988: p. 265)

   This is the situation long faced by many users of English who possess a
   'non-standard' dialect of English as their birth tongue but have also
   learned to write (and perhaps also speak) a more standard dialect. Many
   academics often publish material in journals requiring different
   varieties of English and change style and spellings as necessary
   without great difficulty.

Dual standard

   Two approaches to International English are the individualistic and
   inclusive approach and the new dialect approach.

   The individualistic approach gives control to individual authors to
   write and spell as they wish (within purported standard conventions)
   and to accept the validity of differences. The Longman Grammar of
   Spoken and Written English, published in 1999, is a descriptive study
   of both American and British English in which each chapter follows
   individual spelling conventions according to the preference of the main
   editor of that chapter.

   The new dialect approach appears in The Cambridge Guide to English
   Usage (Peters, 2004) which attempts to avoid any language bias and
   accordingly uses an idiosyncratic international spelling system of
   mixed American and British forms (but tending more to American
   spelling).

Non-U.S. English

   Sometimes International English is used to refer to a general standard
   that is based on English as spoken in the British Isles and most
   Commonwealth countries (as opposed to American English). Whereas the
   majority of English non-native speakers use American English, some
   people argue that the standard of most English-speaking nations other
   than the United States, the Philippines, and Liberia is based on
   British usage. They thus contend that the term "International English"
   should refer to a standard that is largely British. Indeed, until World
   War II, British English was the primary reference point (or, for
   non-English-speaking nations, the dialect of English taught as a
   foreign language) in all Commonwealth countries (except Canada, also
   influenced by the U.S.), and former British colonies: South Africa,
   Egypt and many other countries in Africa, the Indian subcontinent
   (Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh), portions of Southeast Asia (Myanmar,
   Singapore, Malaysia and Thailand), as well as Hong Kong, all Middle
   Eastern Countries except Israel, and most of Continental Europe. After
   World War II, some of these regions began shifting towards a preference
   for American English, in part as an indirect consequence of the
   economic and cultural influence of the United States. The shift towards
   American English was particularly rapid in the case of Eastern Europe,
   for reasons that might partly be political.

   The putative international flavour of this variety of English is argued
   to depend on three factors:
    1. It is standard in far more countries around the world than U.S.
       English. (Though see next for a different opinion)
    2. Many academic publications outside the United States use the
       conventions of the Oxford University Press.
    3. This standard of English has official status in the United Nations
       and the European Union, and it is used as the basis of
       English-language testing by the International English Language
       Testing System ( IELTS).

   The so-called "Americanisation" of Australian English — signified by
   the borrowing of words, terms, and usages from North American English —
   began during the goldrushes, and was accelerated by a massive influx of
   United States military personnel during World War II. The large-scale
   importation of television programs and other mass media content from
   the US, from the 1950s onwards, has also had a significant effect. As a
   result, Australians use many British and American words
   interchangeably, such as pants/trousers or elevator/lift.

   International English is also sometimes used in this manner in the
   computer industry. The Linux community, and other open software groups
   use the term Commonwealth English instead, usually in giving users a
   choice of spellings or wordings for messages. But the English language
   choices given are in fact normally only between American English and
   British English with -ise spellings, the latter being called
   International English or Commonwealth English. Finally, it is worth
   noting that Microsoft's Encarta has different versions for American
   English, Australian English, British English, and Canadian English
   (which does not exhaust what could be provided).

U.S. English

   While some use the term "International English" to refer to a standard
   based on British English, others use the term to refer to a standard
   based on U.S. English. These people argue that, in part because of the
   international influence of American culture, the overwhelming majority
   of non-native speakers use American vocabulary and pronunciation.
   Moreover, they argue that the majority (though not the vast majority,
   as is the case with vocabulary and pronunciation) of non-native
   speakers prefer the American spelling system. Mainland Chinese,
   Taiwanese, Russians generally use American spelling; Japan, the Koreas,
   the Philippines, and most South American countries use American
   spelling, and many in Europe use American spelling (though this is
   changing as the UK's influence over language questions in the EU
   continues to grow).

   The putative international flavor of this variety of English is argued
   to depend on three factors:
    1. It is the standard in more countries around the world than British
       English. (Though see above for a different opinion.)
    2. Standard or not, it is the language actually used by a majority of
       non-native speakers. (Though see above for a different opinion.)
    3. Most academic publications around the world, especially
       publications in the humanities, use the conventions of the Chicago
       Manual of Style, the Modern Language Association, or Harvard
       University Press.

   Another reason that U.S. English is often referred to as "international
   English" is normative. That is, advocates of English spelling reform
   contend that American English is more suited to international use by
   non-native speakers. After all, they argue, this was the whole point of
   Ben Franklin's and Noah Webster's spelling reforms: for example, when
   someone learns the adjective rigorous, he or she can determine the noun
   form simply by removing the suffix. This, along with other changes in
   spelling adopted by the U.S., they contend, is why American English (or
   some variant thereof) should be made into an international standard.
   (Note, though: spelling reform advocates mostly agree that British
   punctuation is better suited for international use than American.)

   Regions and countries that tend to use American English in teaching and
   publishing include much of East Asia (especially Japan, South Korea,
   Taiwan, Vietnam, Philippines and mainland China, although largely
   excluding the former British colonies of Hong Kong and Singapore); the
   Americas (excluding the other former British colonies of Canada and
   those in the Caribbean); and, in Africa, Liberia.

International organisations

   There are three major English varieties used as standards by
   international organisations:

British English with Oxford Spelling (-ize)

   Spellings: centre, programme, labour, defence, cooperation, organize,
   recognize, but: analyse
   IANA language tag en-GB-oed, this standard is based on the Oxford
   English Dictionary

   Examples of organisations that predominantly adhere to this standard
   are:
     * United Nations system ( UN, UNESCO, UNICEF...),
     * World Trade Organization ( WTO),
     * International Organization for Standardization ( ISO),
     * International Electrotechnical Commission ( IEC),
     * International Telecommunication Union ( ITU),
     * World Health Organization ( WHO),
     * International Labour Organization (ILO),
     * International Atomic Energy Agency ( IAEA),
     * Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries ( OPEC),
     * South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation ( SAARC),
     * International Criminal Police Organization - Interpol,
     * International Committee of the Red Cross ( ICRC),
     * WWF - The Conservation Organization,
     * and Amnesty International.

British English with -ise

   Spellings: centre, programme, labour, defence, co-operation, organise,
   recognise, analyse
   Language tag en-GB, the official standard of the UK government.

   Examples of organisations that predominantly adhere to this standard
   are:
     * North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO),
     * European Union (EU),
     * Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD),
     * Commonwealth Secretariat ( Commonwealth of Nations),
     * Caribbean Community ( CARICOM)
     * Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States ( OECS),
     * International Olympic Committee ( IOC),
     * Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA),
     * Transparency International
     * and Greenpeace

American English

   Spellings: centre, program, labor, defense, cooperation, organize,
   recognize, analyze
   Language tag en-US, used by the U.S. government.

   Examples of organisations that predominantly adhere to this standard
   are:
     * International Monetary Fund (IMF),
     * World Bank Group,
     * Organization of American States (OAS),
     * North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) Secretariat,
     * Modern Language Association (MLA),
     * World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
     * International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)

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