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International Space Station

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Space transport

                                               International Space Station


    International Space Station photographed following separation from the
    Space Shuttle Atlantis, September 17, 2006

                                      International Space Station insignia


                                                            ISS Statistics
                                                             Crew: 3 As of
                                                             July 21, 2006
                                            Perigee: 352.8 km (218.7 mi) "
                                                        Apogee: 354.2 km "
                                           Orbital period: 91.61 minutes "
                                              Inclination: 51.64 degrees "
                                                   Orbits per day: 15.72 "
                                    Days in orbit: 2,918 November 18, 2006
                                                    Days occupied: 2,027 "
                                     Total orbits: 45,684 November 5, 2006
                      Distance traveled: ≈1,400,000,000 km June 17, 2005
                             Average speed: 27,685.7 km/h (17165.1 mi/h) "
                                       Mass: 200,783 kg September 12, 2006
                           Width: 73 m (across solar arrays) June 20, 2006
                                             Length: 44.5 m (along core) "
                                                          Height: 27.5 m "
                                    Living volume: 425 m³ August 28, 2005
                                                 Air pressure: 101.3 kPa "
                                               International Space Station

                ISS elements (NASA)

                International Space Station elements as of September 2006.
                Click to enlarge.

                                                               ISS Diagram

   The International Space Station (ISS) is a manned research space
   facility that is being assembled in orbit around the Earth. It is a
   joint project between five space agencies: the National Aeronautics and
   Space Administration (NASA, United States), the Russian Federal Space
   Agency (RKA, Russian Federation), the Japan Aerospace Exploration
   Agency (JAXA, Japan), the Canadian Space Agency (CSA, Canada) and the
   European Space Agency (ESA, Europe).

   The Brazilian Space Agency (AEB, Brazil) participates through a
   separate contract with NASA. The Italian Space Agency similarly has
   separate contracts for various activities not done in the framework of
   ESA's ISS works (where Italy also fully participates).

   In many ways the ISS represents a merger of previously planned
   independent space stations: Russia's Mir 2, the U.S. Space Station
   Freedom and the planned European Columbus and Japanese Experiment
   Module.

   Due to the ISS, there is always a permanent human presence in space, as
   there have always been at least two people on board ISS since the first
   permanent crew entered the ISS on November 2, 2000. It is serviced
   primarily by the Soyuz, Progress spacecraft units and Space Shuttle.
   The ISS is currently still under construction with a projected
   completion date of 2010. At present, the station has a capacity for a
   crew of three. Prior to ESA astronaut Thomas Reiter joining the
   Expedition 13 crew in July 2006, all permanent crewmembers have come
   from the Russian or United States space programs. The ISS has however
   been visited by astronauts from twelve countries and was also the
   destination of the first four space tourists.

History

   Zarya and Node 1 in 1999
   Enlarge
   Zarya and Node 1 in 1999

   In the early 1980s, NASA planned Space Station Freedom as a counterpart
   to the Soviet Salyut and Mir space stations. It never left the drawing
   board, and with the end of the Soviet Union and the Cold War it was
   cancelled. The end of the Space race prompted the U.S. administration
   officials to start negotiations with international partners Europe,
   Russia, Japan and Canada in the early 1990s, in order to build a truly
   international space station. This project was first announced in 1993
   and was called Space Station Alpha. It was planned to combine the
   proposed space stations of all participating space agencies: NASA's
   Space Station Freedom, Russia's Mir-2 (the never-assembled successor to
   the Mir space station, the core of which is now ISS Zvezda) and ESA's
   Columbus Laboratory Module that was planned to be a stand-alone
   spacelab.

   Throughout the 1990s, construction delays hit the project, budget
   projections were heavily revised and the ISS structure was modified
   frequently. The ISS has been, as of today, far more expensive than
   originally anticipated. The ESA estimates the overall cost from the
   start of the project in the late 1980s to the prospective end in 2016
   to be in the region of €100 billion.
   Zarya module as seen from STS-88 (NASA). STS-88 delivered the Unity
   module, the second module of the ISS.
   Enlarge
   Zarya module as seen from STS-88 (NASA). STS-88 delivered the Unity
   module, the second module of the ISS.

   The first section, the Zarya Functional Cargo Block, was put in orbit
   in November 1998 on a Russian Proton rocket. Two further pieces (the
   Unity Module and Zvezda service module) were added before the first
   crew, Expedition 1, was sent. Expedition 1 docked to the ISS on
   November 2, 2000, and consisted of U.S. astronaut William Shepherd and
   two Russian cosmonauts, Yuri Gidzenko, and Sergei Krikalev.

   ISS construction began on November 20, 1998, and is now far behind the
   original planned schedule for completion in 2004 or 2005. This is
   mainly due to the halting of all NASA Shuttle flights following the
   Columbia disaster in early 2003 (although there had been prior delays
   due partly to Shuttle problems, and partly to delays stemming from the
   Russian space agency's budget constraints). For the two and a half
   years that the NASA Space Shuttle fleet was grounded, crew rotation
   continued on the station through the use of the Russian Soyuz
   spacecraft, but construction of the ISS was halted and the science
   conducted aboard was limited due to the crew size of two.
   Columbia lifting off on its final mission.
   Enlarge
   Columbia lifting off on its final mission.

   The reappearance of the foam debris problem on the STS-114 mission in
   July 2005 (the same problem that doomed Columbia) again delayed the
   launch sequence in 2005. As of 2006, the station is only able to
   accommodate three permanent crew members, compared to the expected six
   that the completed station will be home to.

   In March 2006, a meeting of the heads of the five participating space
   agencies accepted the new ISS construction schedule that plans to
   complete the ISS by 2010. A crew of six is expected to be established
   in 2009, after the Shuttle's next 12 construction flights following the
   second Return to Flight mission STS-121. Requirements for stepping up
   the crew size include enhanced environmental support on the ISS, a
   second Soyuz permanently docked on the station to function as a second
   'lifeboat', more frequent Progress flights to provide double the amount
   of consumables, more fuel for orbit raising maneuvers, and a sufficient
   supply line of experimental equipment.

Building process

   Space Shuttle structural overview
   Enlarge
   Space Shuttle structural overview

   As of the beginning of 2006 many changes have been made to the
   originally planned ISS. Modules and other structures have been
   cancelled or replaced and the number of Shuttle flights to the ISS has
   been reduced from previously planned numbers. Still, the newest ISS
   Shuttle launch manifest and the current ISS design scheme reveal that
   more than 80% of the hardware planned to be part of the ISS in the late
   90s, is still planned to be orbited to the ISS by its scheduled
   completion date in 2010.
   The Pirs is one of the modules launched by a Soyuz
   Enlarge
   The Pirs is one of the modules launched by a Soyuz

   Building the ISS requires more than 40 assembly and utilization
   flights. Of these flights, currently 33 are planned to be Space Shuttle
   flights, with 17 ISS-shuttle flights currently flown and 16 more
   planned between 2006 and 2010. Other assembly flights consist of
   modules lifted by the Russian Proton rocket or in the case of the Pirs
   Airlock by a Soyuz rocket.

   In addition to the assembly and utilization flights, approximately 30
   Progress spacecraft flights are required to provide logistics until
   2010. Experimental equipment, fuel and consumables are and will be
   delivered by all vehicles visiting the ISS: the Shuttle, the Russian
   Progress, the European ATV (prospectively from May 2007 onwards) and
   the Japanese HTV.

   When assembly is complete, the ISS will have a pressurized volume of
   approximately 1,000 cubic meters, a mass of approximately 400,000
   kilograms, approximately 100 kilowatts of power output, a truss 108.4
   meters long, modules 74 meters long, and a crew of six.

   As of September 2006 the station consists of several modules and
   elements:

   Element Flight Launch Vehicle Launch date Length
   (m) Diameter
   (m) Mass
   (kg)
   Zarya FGB 1A/R Proton rocket 20 November 1998 12.6 4.1 19,323
   Unity Node 1 2A - STS-88 Endeavour 4 December 1998 5.49 4.57 11,612
   Zvezda Service Module 1R Proton rocket 12 July 2000 13.1 4.15 19,050
   Z1 Truss 3A - STS-92 Discovery 11 October 2000 4.9 4.2 8,755
   P6 Truss - Solar Array* 4A - STS-97 Endeavour 30 November 2000 73.2
   10.7 15,900
   Destiny 5A - STS-98 Atlantis 7 February 2001 8.53 4.27 14,515
   Canadarm2 6A - STS-100 Endeavour 19 April 2001 17.6 0.35 4,899
   Joint Airlock - Quest Airlock 7A - STS-104 Atlantis 12 July 2001 5.5
   4.0 6,064
   Docking Compartment - Pirs Airlock 4R Soyuz rocket 14 September 2001
   4.1 2.6 3,900
   S0 Truss 8A - STS-110 Atlantis 8 April 2002 13.4 4.6 13,970
   Mobile Base System for Canadarm2 UF-2 - STS-111 Endeavour 5 June 2002
   5.7 2.9 1,450
   S1 Truss 9A - STS-112 Atlantis 7 October 2002 13.7 3.9 12,598
   P1 Truss 11A - STS-113 Endeavour 24 November 2002 13.7 3.9 12,598
   External Stowage Platform (ESP-2) LF1 - STS-114 Discovery 26 July 2005
   4.9 3.65 2,676
   P3/P4 Truss - Solar Array 12A - STS-115 Atlantis 9 September 2006 73.2
   10.7 15,900

   *P6 Truss to be relocated to its final position, the P5 truss mounting
   position, on STS-120.

Structures and design

   Internation Space Station mockup at Johnson Space Center in Houston,
   Texas
   Enlarge
   Internation Space Station mockup at Johnson Space Centre in Houston,
   Texas
   Cosmonaut Sergei Krikalev inside the Zvezda Service Module, November
   2000
   Enlarge
   Cosmonaut Sergei Krikalev inside the Zvezda Service Module, November
   2000
   Flight Engineer Helms in Node 1
   Enlarge
   Flight Engineer Helms in Node 1
   Node 2
   Enlarge
   Node 2
   March 10, 2001 - The Leonardo Multi-Purpose Logistics Module rests in
   Discovery's payload bay during STS-102.
   Enlarge
   March 10, 2001 - The Leonardo Multi-Purpose Logistics Module rests in
   Discovery's payload bay during STS-102.
   Astronaut Reilly in Quest Airlock
   Enlarge
   Astronaut Reilly in Quest Airlock
   Columbus Laboratory Module
   Enlarge
   Columbus Laboratory Module
   Japanese Experiment Module, aka Kibo module
   Enlarge
   Japanese Experiment Module, aka Kibo module
   Cupola
   Enlarge
   Cupola
   Graph of the altitude of the ISS since launch in 1998
   Enlarge
   Graph of the altitude of the ISS since launch in 1998

   The space station is located in orbit around the Earth at an altitude
   of approximately 360 km (220 miles), a type of orbit usually termed low
   Earth orbit (The actual height varies over time by several kilometres
   due to atmospheric drag and reboosts). It orbits Earth in a period of
   about 92 minutes; by June 2005 it had completed more than 37,500 orbits
   since launch of the Zarya module on November 20, 1998.

   The ISS, when completed, will be essentially made of a set of
   communicating pressurized modules connected to a truss, on which are
   attached four large pairs of photovoltaic modules. The pressurized
   modules and the truss will be perpendicular: the truss spanning from
   starboard to port and the habitable zone extending on the aft-forward
   axis. Although during the construction the station attitude may vary,
   when all four photovoltaic modules are in their definitive position the
   aft-forward axis will be parallel to the velocity vector.

Power supply

   The ISS source for electrical power is the sun: light is converted into
   electricity through the use of solar panels. Before assembly flight 4A
   (shuttle mission STS-97, November 30, 2000) the only power source were
   the Russian solar panels attached to the Zarya and Zvezda modules: the
   Russian segment of the station uses 28 volts dc (just like the Shuttle
   does). In the rest of the station, electricity is provided by the solar
   panels attached to the truss at a voltage ranging from 130 to 180 volts
   dc. The power is then stabilized and distributed at 160 volts dc and
   then converted to the user-required 124 volts dc. Power can be shared
   between the two segments of the station using converters, and this
   feature is essential since the cancellation of the Russian Science
   Power Platform: the Russian segment will depend on the U.S. built solar
   arrays for power supply.

   Using a high-voltage (130 to 160 volts) distribution line in the
   so-called U.S. part of the station led to smaller power lines and thus
   weight savings.

Life support

   The ISS Environmental Control and Life Support System provides or
   controls elements such as atmospheric pressure, oxygen levels, water,
   and fire extinguishing, among other things.

   The highest priority for the life support system is the ISS atmosphere,
   but the system also collects, processes, and stores water and waste
   used and produced by the crew. For example, the system recycles fluid
   from the sink, shower, urine, and condensation.

Assembly

   A total of 10 main pressurized modules ( Zarya, Zvezda, US Lab, Unity
   Module (also called Node 1), Node 2, Node 3, Columbus, Kibo, MLM and
   the RM) are currently scheduled to be part of the ISS by its completion
   date in 2010. A number of smaller pressurized sections will be adjunct
   to them ( Soyuz spacecrafts (permanently 2 as lifeboats - 6 months
   rotations), Progress transporters (2 or more), the Quest and Pirs
   Airlocks, as well as periodically the MPLM, the ATV and the HT-V).

Pressurized modules already launched

   Currently, the ISS consists of only four main pressurized modules; two
   Russian modules Zarya and Zvezda and two US modules Destiny and Node 1.
   Zarya was the first module launched by a Proton rocket in November
   1998, followed by a shuttle mission that connected Zarya with Node 1,
   the first of three node modules, 2 weeks after Zarya had been launched.
   This bare 2-module core of the ISS remained unmanned for the next one
   and a half years, until in July 2000 the Russian module Zvezda was
   added, allowing a minimum crew of two astronauts or cosmonauts to be on
   the ISS permanently.

   Since 2000, the only main pressurized module delivered to the ISS was
   the Destiny Laboratory Module by STS-98 in 2001. The US Lab was also
   the first science module delivered to the ISS, whereas Zarya provides
   electrical power, storage, propulsion, and guidance functions and
   Zvezda provides living quarters, a life support system, a communication
   system, electrical power distribution, a data processing system, a
   flight control system, and a propulsion system. Node 1's primary
   function is to link different modules together, however fluids,
   environmental control and life support systems, electrical and data
   systems are also routed through Node 1 to supply work and living areas
   of the station.

   Other pressurized sections of the current configuration of the ISS are
   the Quest Airlock and the Pirs Airlock. Soyuz spacecrafts and Progress
   spacecrafts docked to the ISS also extend the pressurized volume. At
   least one Soyuz spacecraft has to stay docked permanently as a
   'lifeboat' and is replaced every six months by a new Soyuz as part of
   crew rotation.

   Although not permanently docked with the ISS, the Multi-Purpose
   Logistics Module (MPLM) forms part of the ISS during Shuttle missions
   that include the MPLM. The MPLM is attached to Node 1 and is used for
   resupply and logistics flights. Speculation that the last Space Shuttle
   flight involving an MPLM could leave one MPLM permanently docked with
   the Station are fueled by the MPLM's potential capacity for a long-term
   stay in orbit. Modifications would need to be made, including power
   support and checks on whether the MPLM would influence the ISS overall
   structure. As of 2006, it is not planned to integrate the MPLM
   permanently into the ISS structure.

Pressurized modules to be launched

Node 2 — 2007

   As of March 2006, nearly all already built pressurized modules are
   planned to be launched by the Space Shuttle after return to flight with
   STS-121 in July 2006. If the current Shuttle launch sequence is not
   disrupted materially, Node 2 will be launched in the second quarter of
   2007 by STS-120. Node 2 was built by the Italian Space Agency, however
   its ownership has been already transferred to NASA as part of a
   bartering agreement between NASA and ESA. Node 2 will contain eight
   racks that provide air, electrical power, water and other systems
   essential to support life on the spacecraft and is scheduled to be the
   hub for the Columbus module and Kibo.

Columbus Laboratory Module — 2007

   The next Shuttle flight after Node 2 is scheduled to bring the European
   module Columbus to the ISS. Columbus will be the second module mainly
   dedicated to science on the ISS, including the Fluid Science Laboratory
   (FSL), the European Physiology Modules (EPM), the Biolab, the European
   Drawer Rack (EDR) and various storage racks.

Multipurpose Laboratory Module — 2008

   The Russian space agency has announced that the Multipurpose Laboratory
   Module (MLM) is scheduled to be launched by a Proton rocket in 2008.
   The MLM is the main Russian science module, and depending on its actual
   launch date the third or fourth science module to be launched to the
   ISS. It will be equipped with an altitude control system that can be
   used as a backup by the ISS and will be docked onto the Zarya control
   module side docking port. The European Robotic Arm will be launched
   together with MLM, mated on its surface for a later deployment in
   space, according to an agreement signed in October 2005 between ESA and
   Roskosmos.

Japanese Experiment Module — 2008/2009

   The Japanese Experiment Module (JEM), aka Kibo is the next pressurized
   module on the schedule. It consists of two pressurized sections and one
   exposed facility. Three Shuttle flights are needed to bring Kibo into
   orbit; the pressurized sections are scheduled to fly in the second half
   of 2008 and in the first half of 2009. Kibo will be mounted on the Node
   2, on the opposite side to the Columbus module.

Russian Research Module — 2009/2010

   NASA's ISS schedule still includes one Russian Research Module (RM) as
   part of the ISS that may be docked to Zvezda and is rumoured to fly to
   the ISS in 2009 or 2010 on a Russian Proton rocket. Construction on
   this module has not yet begun, which casts doubt on its actual delivery
   to the ISS.

Node 3 and Cupola — 2010

   Node 3 is currently scheduled for the beginning of 2010 on the
   penultimate Shuttle flight. Like Node 2, Node 3 was built in Italy by
   the Italian Space Agency, but is owned by NASA. It will be used as a
   storage compartment; however its original purpose, to be a hub for the
   Habitation Module as well as the Crew Return Vehicle, is no longer
   relevant, as both items were cancelled in 2001. One of the curiosities
   of the ISS, the 'space window' Cupola is currently scheduled to be
   flown together with Node 3 on the last shuttle flight to the ISS. ESA
   has already finished construction and is storing the Cupola until its
   flight together with Node 3.

Unpressurized elements

   There is also a large unpressurized truss system partially in place
   that will eventually support the prominent solar arrays.

Cancelled elements

     * Centrifuge Accommodations Module - would have been attached to Node
       2
     * Universal Docking Module - replaced by Multipurpose Laboratory
       Module
     * Docking and Stowage Module - replaced by Multipurpose Laboratory
       Module
     * Habitation Module -
     * Crew Return Vehicle (CRV)
     * Interim Control Module - no need to replace Zvezda (in storage
       ready to launch at short notice if required)
     * ISS Propulsion Module - no need to replace Zvezda
     * Science Power Platform - power will be provided to the Russian
       segments partly by the US solar cell platforms

Visiting spacecraft

     * Space Shuttle - resupply vehicle, assembly and logistics flights
       and crew rotation
     * Soyuz spacecraft - crew rotation and emergency evacuation, replaced
       every 6 months
     * Progress spacecraft - resupply vehicle
     * Proposed: European (ESA) Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) ISS
       resupply spacecraft (scheduled for Nov 2007)
     * Proposed: Japanese (JAXA) H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV) resupply
       vehicle for Kibo module (scheduled for 2008)
     * Proposed: SpaceX Dragon for NASA Commercial Orbital Transportation
       Services (Scheduled for 2009)
     * Proposed: Rocketplane Kistler K-1 Vehicle for NASA Commercial
       Orbital Transportation Services
     * Proposed: Russian Space Shuttle Kliper for possible crew rotation
       and as resupply transporter (scheduled for 2012)
     * Proposed: Crew Exploration Vehicle possible crew rotation and as
       resupply transporter (officially scheduled for 2014)
     * Proposed: Advanced Crew Transportation System Soyuz-derived
       European-Russian crew rotation and resupply spacecraft (scheduled
       for 2014)



                Components of the International Space Station

     Already launched: Zarya | Unity (Node 1) | Zvezda | Destiny | Quest
                           airlock | Pirs airlock

            Launched periodically: Multi-Purpose Logistics Module

     Scheduled for Shuttle: Node 2 | Columbus | Kibō | Node 3 | Cupola

   Scheduled for Proton: Multipurpose Laboratory Module | European Robotic
                        Arm | Russian Research Module

          Other subsystems: Integrated Truss Structure | Canadarm2

                         See also: assembly sequence

Legal aspects

Agreement

   Cover page of the Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement signed on
   January 28, 1998
   Enlarge
   Cover page of the Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement signed on
   January 28, 1998

   The legal structure that regulates the space station is multi-layered.
   The primary layer establishing obligations and rights between the ISS
   partners is the Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement (IGA), an
   international treaty signed on January 28, 1998 by fifteen governments
   involved in the Space Station project: the United States, Canada,
   Japan, the Russian Federation, and eleven Member States of the European
   Space Agency (Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, The
   Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United
   Kingdom). Article 1 outlines its purpose:

   This Agreement is a long term international co-operative framework on
   the basis of genuine partnership, for the detailed design, development,
   operation, and utilisation of a permanently inhabited civil Space
   Station for peaceful purposes, in accordance with international law.

   The IGA sets the stage for a second layer of agreements between the
   partners referred to as 'Memoranda of Understanding' (MOUs), of which
   four exist between NASA and each of the four other partners. There are
   no MOUs between ESA, Roskosmos, CSA and JAXA due to the fact that NASA
   is the designated manager of the ISS. The MOUs are used to describe the
   roles and responsibilities of the partners in more detail.

   A third layer consists of bartered contractual agreements or the
   trading of the partners' rights and duties, including the 2005
   commercial framework agreement between NASA and Roskosmos that sets
   forth the terms and conditions under which NASA purchases seats on
   Soyuz crew transporters and cargo capacity on unmanned Progress
   transporters.

   A fourth legal layer of agreements implements and supplements the four
   MOUs further. Notably among them is the ISS code of conduct, setting
   out criminal jurisdiction, anti-harassment and certain other behaviour
   rules for ISS crewmembers.

Utilization

   The nadir window in the Destiny lab - the Destiny lab is 100% owned by
   NASA
   Enlarge
   The nadir window in the Destiny lab - the Destiny lab is 100% owned by
   NASA
   The Zarya module was built in Russia but is 100% owned by NASA
   Enlarge
   The Zarya module was built in Russia but is 100% owned by NASA

   There is no fixed percentage of ownership for the whole space station.
   Rather Article 5 of the IGA sets forth that each partner shall retain
   jurisdiction and control over the elements it registers and over
   personnel in or on the Space Station who are its nationals. Therefore,
   for each ISS module only one partner retains sole ownership. Still, the
   agreements to use the space station facilities are more complex.

   The three planned Russian segments Zvezda, the Multipurpose Laboratory
   Module and the Russian Research Modules are made and owned by Russia
   which, as of today, also retains its current and prospective usage (
   Zarya, although constructed and launched by Russia, has been paid for
   and is officially owned by NASA). In order to use the Russian parts of
   the station, the partners use bilateral agreements (third and fourth
   layer of the above outlined legal structure). The rest of the station,
   (the U.S., the European and Japanese pressurized modules as well as the
   truss and solar panel structure and the two robotic arms) has been
   agreed to be utilized as follows (% refers to time that each structure
   may be used by each partner):
     * (1) Columbus: 51% for ESA, 49% for NASA and CSA (CSA has agreed
       with NASA to use 2.3% of all non-Russian ISS structure)
     * (2) Kibo: 51% for JAXA, 49% for NASA and CSA (2.3%)
     * (3) Destiny Lab: 100% for NASA and CSA (2.3%) as well as 100% of
       the truss payload accommodation
     * (4) Crew time and power from the solar panel structure, as well as
       rights to purchase supporting services (upload/download and
       communication services) 76.6% for NASA, 12.8% for JAXA, 8.3% for
       ESA and 2.3% for CSA

Costs

   The most cited figure of an estimate of overall costs of the ISS is 100
   billion (very often cited as USD; ESA, the only agency actually stating
   potential overall costs on its website, estimates €100 billion). Giving
   a precise cost estimate for the ISS is, however, not straightforward;
   it is, for instance, hard to determine which costs should actually be
   contributed to the ISS program or how the Russian contribution should
   be measured, as the Russian space agency runs at considerably lower USD
   costs than the other partners.

NASA

   NASA's budget projections currently see an end to ISS funding in 2017
   in order to free funds for the Vision for Space Exploration
   Enlarge
   NASA's budget projections currently see an end to ISS funding in 2017
   in order to free funds for the Vision for Space Exploration

   In contrast to common belief, the overall majority of costs for NASA
   are not incurred for initially building the ISS modules and external
   structure on the ground or for construction, crew and supply flights to
   the ISS. In fact the Space Shuttle program, which as of 2006 nearly
   costs $5 billion annually, is normally not considered part of the ISS
   budget, although the Shuttle has been nearly solely used for ISS
   flights since 1998.

   NASA's 2007 budget request lists costs for the ISS (without Shuttle
   costs) as $25.6 billion for the years 1994 to 2005. For each of 2005
   and 2006 about $1.7 to 1.8 billion are allocated to the ISS - this sum
   will be rising until 2010 when it is calculated to reach 2.3 billion
   and then should stay at the same level, however inflation-adjusted,
   until 2016, the defined end of the program.

   The $1.8 billion expensed in 2005 consisted of:
     * Development of new hardware: Only $70 million were allocated to
       core development, for instance development of systems like
       navigation, data support or environmental.
     * Spacecraft Operations: $800 million consisting of $125 million for
       each of software, extravehicular activity systems, and logistics
       and maintenance. An additional $150 million is spent on flight,
       avionics and crew systems. The rest of $250 million goes to overall
       ISS management.
     * Launch and Mission operations: Although the Shuttle launch costs
       are not considered part of the ISS budget, mission and mission
       integration ($300 million), medical support ($25 million) and
       Shuttle launch site processing ($125 million) is within the ISS
       budget.
     * Operations Program Integration: $350 million were spent on
       maintaining and sustaining U.S. flight and ground hardware and
       software to ensure integrity of the ISS design and the continuous,
       safe operability.
     * ISS cargo/crew: Only $140 million were spent for purchase of
       supplies, cargo and crew capability for Progress and Soyuz flights.

   Assuming NASA's projections of average costs of $2.5 billion from 2011
   to 2016 and the end of spending money on the ISS in 2017 (about
   $300-500 million) after shutdown in 2016, the overall ISS project costs
   for NASA from the announcement of the program in 1993 to its end will
   be about $53 billion. The 33 Shuttle flights (which, as mentioned
   above, are normally not considered part of the overall ISS costs) for
   the construction and supply of the ISS will be around $35 billion.
   There have also been considerable costs for designing Space Station
   Freedom in the 1980s and early 1990s, before the ISS program started in
   1993. Therefore, although the actual costs contributed to the ISS are
   only half of the $100 billion figure often cited in the media, if
   combined with costs for the Shuttle and the design of its precursor
   project, it nearly reaches $100 billion for NASA alone.

ESA

   ESA calculates that its contribution over the 30 year lifetime of the
   project will be €8 billion. The costs for the Columbus Laboratory total
   more than €1 billion already, costs for ATV development total several
   hundred million and considering that each Ariane 5 launch costs around
   €125 million, each ATV launch will incur considerable costs as well.

JAXA

   The Kibo Laboratory has already cost $2.8 billion according to a recent
   2006 article. In addition, the annual running costs for Kibo will total
   around $350 to 400 million.

Roskosmos

   A considerable part of the Russian Space Agency's budget is used for
   the ISS. Since 1998 there have been over two dozen Soyuz and Progress
   flights, the primary crew and cargo transporters since 2003. The
   question, how much Russia spends on the station, measured in USD, is,
   however, not easy to answer. The two modules currently in orbit are
   derivatives of the Mir program and therefore development costs are much
   lower than for other modules; in addition, the exchange rate between
   ruble and USD is not adequately giving a real comparison to what the
   costs for Russia really are.

   The $20 million each space tourist has paid for an available seat on a
   Soyuz to the ISS is only offsetting a very small part of Russia's
   financial contribution to the ISS.

CSA

   Canada, whose main contribution to the ISS is the Canadarm2, is
   estimating that through the last 20 years it has contributed about
   C$1.4 billion to the ISS.

Criticism

   The ISS Centrifuge Accommodations Module built by JAXA for NASA, one of
   the most ambitious science modules, will not be part of the completed
   ISS
   Enlarge
   The ISS Centrifuge Accommodations Module built by JAXA for NASA, one of
   the most ambitious science modules, will not be part of the completed
   ISS

   There are many critics of the ISS, especially with regard to the
   biggest partner, NASA. These critics view the project as a waste of
   both time and American tax money, inhibiting progress on more useful
   projects: for instance, claiming that the very often quoted estimated
   US$100 billion lifetime cost could pay for dozens of unmanned
   scientific missions or could be used for space exploration in general
   or be better spent on problems on Earth.

   Some critics argue that very little serious scientific research was
   ever convincingly planned for the ISS. They note that actual work so
   far has been trivial even compared to low expectations, although the
   ISS has been in orbit for eight years and manned for more than five.
   They point out that the scientific merit of experiments conducted on
   the shuttle and other space stations have been negligible compared to
   most other funded science in space or on the ground. Other critics
   suppose that the ISS could accommodate important research, and believe
   that the cancellation of ambitious science modules, such as the
   Centrifuge Accommodations Module, are unwarranted. They say that the
   planned ISS structure meets few of the scientific objectives of the
   station proposed in the 1990s.

   Two technical aspects of the ISS's design have been heavily criticized:
    1. It requires too much maintenance, and in particular too much
       maintenance by risky, expensive EVAs;
    2. Its orbit is too highly inclined, meaning American launches need to
       carry more fuel.

   In general, the most economical orbits to reach are equatorial orbits
   reached from equatorial launch sites, due to the rotation of the Earth.
   The choice of the ISS's inclination arose from the political realities
   of the American desire to heavily involve Russia, as the Baikonur
   Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan is at a high latitude. Russia's involvement,
   in turn, saved the space station from abandonment after Columbia
   disintegrated in 2003.

   In response to some of these criticisms, advocates of manned space
   exploration say that criticism of the ISS project is short-sighted, and
   that manned space research and exploration have produced billions of
   dollars' worth of tangible benefits to people on Earth. By some
   estimates, the indirect economic benefits made from commercialization
   of technologies developed during human space exploration have returned
   many times the initial investment to the economy. However, critics have
   argued that these estimates assume rather than conclude a good ratio of
   return on NASA's R&D spending; another study concluded that the NASA's
   rate of return from spinoffs is actually very low, except for
   aeronautics work that led to aircraft sales.

   Critics also say that NASA is often casually credited with "spin-offs"
   (such as Velcro and portable computers) that were also developed
   independently for other reasons. NASA maintains a list of spinoffs
   stemming from technologies created to support construction of the ISS,
   as well as from work performed on the ISS. However, NASA's official
   list is much narrower and more arcane than the compelling narrative of
   billions of dollars of spinoffs.

   It is therefore open to debate whether the ISS, as distinct from the
   wider space program, will be a major contributor to society. Some
   advocates have argued that apart from its scientific value (or lack
   thereof), it is an important example of international cooperation.

Present status

   Present configuration of the ISS
   Enlarge
   Present configuration of the ISS

   After the breakup of Columbia on February 1, 2003, and the subsequent
   two and a half year suspension of the U.S. Space Shuttle program,
   followed by problems with resuming flight operations in 2005, there was
   some uncertainty over the future of the ISS until 2006. In 2006, the
   international partners announced their commitment to complete the ISS
   by 2010.

   Still, the future of the ISS depends on the Space Shuttle. Due to
   weight restrictions and design constraints, payloads intended for the
   Shuttle — even if ready to fly — cannot be launched in an economically
   sensible way on any other available launcher. In addition, assembly
   work is manpower-intensive, making it difficult to do without the
   assistance of EVA teams brought up by the Shuttle. Thus, if the Shuttle
   program suffered another disaster or a severe cut, the ISS project
   would likely be unable to continue.

   Since 2003 crew exchange has been carried out using the Russian Soyuz
   spacecraft. Starting with Expedition 7, two-astronaut caretaker crews
   have been launched, instead of the previous crews of three. Because the
   ISS had not been visited by a shuttle for an extended period, a larger
   than planned amount of waste accumulated, temporarily hindering station
   operations in 2004. However Progress transports and the STS-114 shuttle
   flight took care of this problem.

   The Space Shuttle Program resumed flight on July 26, 2005 with the
   STS-114 mission of Discovery. This mission to the ISS was intended both
   to test new safety measures implemented since the Columbia disaster,
   and to deliver supplies to the station. Although the mission succeeded
   safely, it was not without risk; foam was shed by the external tank,
   leading NASA to announce future missions would be grounded until this
   issue was resolved.

   The second Return to Flight mission, STS-121 was planned for September
   2005, but Discovery's flight preparation was delayed and the mission
   did not launch until July 4, 2006. With the successful completion of
   mission STS-121, ISS assembly resumed on September 9, 2006 with the
   STS-115 Space Shuttle mission.

Expeditions

   All permanent station crews are named "Expedition N", where N is
   sequentially increased after each expedition. Expeditions have an
   average duration of half a year. Taxi visitors and space tourists are
   not counted as Expedition members.
   Expedition Crew
   (commander in italics) Patch Launch date Flight up Landing date Flight
   down Duration
   (days)
   Expedition 1 William Shepherd - U.S.A.
   Yuri Gidzenko - Russia
   Sergei Krikalev - Russia October 31, 2000
   07:52:47 UTC Soyuz TM-31 March 21, 2001
   07:33:06 UTC STS-102 140.98
   Expedition 2 Yuri Usachev - Russia
   Susan Helms - U.S.A.
   James Voss - U.S.A. March 8, 2001
   11:42:09 UTC STS-102 August 22, 2001
   19:24:06 UTC STS-105 167.28
   Expedition 3 Frank L. Culbertson - U.S.A.
   Vladimir N. Dezhurov - Russia
   Mikhail Tyurin - Russia August 10, 2001
   21:10:15 UTC STS-105 December 17, 2001
   17:56:13 UTC STS-108 128.86
   Expedition 4 Yury Onufrienko - Russia
   Dan Bursch - U.S.A.
   Carl Walz - U.S.A. December 5, 2001
   22:19:28 UTC STS-108 June 19, 2002
   09:57:41 UTC STS-111 195.82
   Expedition 5 Valery Korzun - Russia
   Sergei Treschev - Russia
   Peggy Whitson - U.S.A. June 5, 2002
   21:22:49 UTC STS-111 December 7, 2002
   19:37:12 UTC STS-113 184.93
   Expedition 6 Kenneth Bowersox - U.S.A.
   Nikolai Budarin - Russia
   Donald Pettit - U.S.A. November 24, 2002
   00:49:47 UTC STS-113 May 4, 2003
   02:04:25 UTC Soyuz TMA-1 161.05
   Expedition 7 Yuri Malenchenko - Russia
   Edward Lu - U.S.A. April 26, 2003
   03:53:52 UTC Soyuz TMA-2 October 28, 2003
   02:40:20 UTC Soyuz TMA-2 184.93
   Expedition 8 Michael Foale - U.S.A.
   Alexander Kaleri - Russia October 18, 2003
   05:38:03 UTC Soyuz TMA-3 April 30, 2004
   00:11:15 UTC Soyuz TMA-3 194.77
   Expedition 9 Gennady Padalka - Russia
   Michael Fincke - U.S.A. April 19, 2004
   03:19:00 UTC Soyuz TMA-4 October 24, 2004
   00:32:00 UTC Soyuz TMA-4 185.66
   Expedition 10 Leroy Chiao - U.S.A.
   Salizhan Sharipov - Russia October 14, 2004
   03:06 UTC Soyuz TMA-5 April 24, 2005
   22:08:00 UTC Soyuz TMA-5 192.79
   Expedition 11 Sergei Krikalev - Russia
   John L. Phillips - U.S.A. April 15, 2005
   00:46:00 UTC Soyuz TMA-6
   October 11, 2005
   01:09:00 UTC Soyuz TMA-6 179.02
   Expedition 12 William McArthur - U.S.A.
   Valery Tokarev - Russia October 1, 2005
   03:54:00 UTC Soyuz TMA-7
   April 8, 2006
   23:48:00 UTC Soyuz TMA-7 189.01
   Expedition 13 Pavel Vinogradov - Russia
   Jeffrey Williams - U.S.A.
   Thomas Reiter - Germany March 30, 2006
   02:30 UTC (Soyuz)
   July 4, 2006
   18:38 UTC (STS) Soyuz TMA-8
   STS-121(Reiter) September 28, 2006
   01:13 UTC (Soyuz)
   December 18, 2006 (STS) Soyuz TMA-8
   STS-116 (Reiter) 182.65
   Expedition 14 Michael Lopez-Alegria - U.S.A.
   Mikhail Tyurin - Russia
   Sunita Williams - U.S.A. September 18, 2006
   04:09 UTC (Soyuz)
   Planned: December 8, 2006 (STS) Soyuz TMA-9
   STS-116(Williams) Planned: April 20, 2007 (Soyuz)
   July 9, 2007 (STS) Soyuz TMA-9
   STS-118 (Williams) ~214
   Expedition 15 Fyodor Yurchikhin - Russia
   Clayton Anderson - U.S.A.
   Oleg Kotov - Russia
   Daniel Tani - U.S.A.
   Scheduled for April 9, 2007– October 17, 2007
   Expedition 16 Peggy Whitson - U.S.A.
   Yuri Malenchenko - Russia
   Léopold Eyharts - France
   Robert Thirsk - Canada
   Koichi Wakata - Japan Scheduled for October 6, 2007– March 4, 2008

   The International Space Station is the most-visited spacecraft in the
   history of space flight. As of September 11, 2006, it has had 159
   (non-distinct) visitors. Mir had 137 (non-distinct) visitors (See Space
   station). The number of distinct visitors of the ISS is 124 .
   Retrieved from "
   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station"
   This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia
   with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details
   of authors and sources) and is available under the GNU Free
   Documentation License. See also our Disclaimer.
