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Isaac Asimov

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   CAPTION: Isaac Asimov

A photograph of Asimov taken by Jay Kay Klein
  Pseudonym(s):    Paul French, George E. Dale
      Born:        January 2, 1920
                   Petrovichi, Russian SFSR
      Died:        April 6, 1992
                   New York, New York, USA
  Occupation(s):   Novelist, short story author, essayist, historian,
                   biochemist, textbook writer, humorist
    Genre(s):      Science fiction ( hard SF), popular science, mystery fiction,
                   essays, literary criticism
Literary movement: Golden Age of Science Fiction
  Debut work(s):   " Marooned Off Vesta"
   Influences:     Clifford D. Simak
   Influenced:     Thomas Pynchon

   Dr. Isaac Asimov (c. January 2, 1920 – April 6, 1992), IPA: /ˈaɪzək
   ˈæzɪˌmɜv/, originally Исаак Озимов but now transcribed into Russian as
   Айзек Азимов) was a Russian-born American author and biochemist, a
   highly successful and exceptionally prolific writer best known for his
   works of science fiction and for his popular science books.

   Asimov wrote or edited more than 500 books and an estimated 90,000
   letters and postcards, and has works in every major category of the
   Dewey Decimal System except Philosophy. Asimov is widely considered a
   master of the science-fiction genre and, along with Robert A. Heinlein
   and Arthur C. Clarke, was considered one of the "Big Three"
   science-fiction writers during his lifetime. Asimov's most famous work
   is the Foundation Series; his other major series are the Galactic
   Empire series and the Robot series, both of which he later tied into
   the Foundation Series. He also wrote mysteries and fantasy, as well as
   a great amount of non-fiction. Asimov wrote the Lucky Starr series of
   juvenile science-fiction novels using the pen name Paul French.

   Most of Asimov's popularized science books explain scientific concepts
   in a historical way, going as far back as possible to a time when the
   science in question was at its simplest stage. He often provides
   nationalities, birth dates, and death dates for the scientists he
   mentions, as well as etymologies and pronunciation guides for technical
   terms. Examples include his Guide to Science, the 3-volume set
   Understanding Physics, and Asimov's Chronology of Science and
   Discovery.

   Asimov was a long-time member and Vice President of Mensa
   International, albeit reluctantly; he described the members of that
   organization as "intellectually combative". He took more joy in being
   President of the American Humanist Association. The asteroid 5020
   Asimov, the magazine Asimov's Science Fiction, and two different Isaac
   Asimov Awards are named in his honour.

Biography

   Asimov was born around January 2, 1920 (his date of birth for official
   purposes—the precise date is not certain) in Petrovichi shtetl of
   Smolensk Oblast, RSFSR (now Russia) to Anna Rachel Berman Asimov and
   Judah Asimov, a Jewish family of millers. They immigrated to the United
   States when he was 3 years old. Since his parents always spoke Yiddish
   and English with him, he never learned Russian. Growing up in Brooklyn,
   New York, Asimov taught himself to read at the age of 5, and remained
   fluent in Yiddish as well as English. His parents owned a succession of
   candy stores, and everyone in the family was expected to work in them.
   Science fiction pulp magazines were sold in the stores, and he began
   reading them. Around the age of 11 he began to write his own stories,
   and by age 19 he was selling them to the science fiction magazines.
   Isaac Asimov in 1965
   Isaac Asimov in 1965

   Asimov attended New York City Public Schools, including Boys High
   School, in Brooklyn, New York. From there he went on to Columbia
   University, from which he graduated in 1939, later returning to earn a
   Ph.D. in biochemistry in 1948. In between, he spent 3 years during
   World War II working as a civilian at the Philadelphia Navy Yard's
   Naval Air Experimental Station. After the war ended, he was drafted
   into the U.S. Army, serving for just under 9 months before receiving an
   honorable discharge. In the course of his brief military career, he
   rose to the rank of corporal on the basis of his typing skills, and
   narrowly avoided participating in the 1946 atomic bomb tests at Bikini
   Atoll.

   After completing his doctorate, Asimov joined the faculty of the Boston
   University Medical School, with which he remained associated
   thereafter. From 1958, this was in a non-teaching capacity, as he
   became a full-time writer (his writing income had already exceeded his
   academic salary). Being tenured meant that he retained the title of
   associate professor and, in 1979, the university honored his writing by
   promoting him to full professor of biochemistry. Asimov's personal
   papers from 1965 on are archived at the university's Mugar Memorial
   Library, to which he donated them at the request of curator Howard
   Gottlieb. The collection fills 464 boxes, on 71 metres of shelf space.

   Asimov married Gertrude Blugerman (1917, Canada–1990, Boston) on July
   26, 1942. They had two children, David (b. 1951) and Robyn Joan (b.
   1955). After a separation in 1970, he and Gertrude divorced in 1973,
   and Asimov married Janet O. Jeppson later that year.

   Asimov was a claustrophile; he enjoyed small, enclosed spaces. In the
   first volume of his autobiography, he recalls a childhood desire to own
   a magazine stand in a New York City Subway station, within which he
   could enclose himself and listen to the rumble of passing trains while
   reading.

   Asimov was afraid of flying, only doing so twice in his entire life
   (once in the course of his work at the Naval Air Experimental Station,
   and once returning home from the army base in Oahu in 1946). He seldom
   traveled great distances, partly because his aversion to aircraft
   complicated the logistics of long-distance travel; this phobia
   influenced several of his fiction works, such as the Wendell Urth
   mystery stories and the Robot novels featuring Elijah Baley. In his
   later years, he found he enjoyed traveling on cruise ships, and on
   several occasions he became part of the cruises' "entertainment,"
   giving science-themed talks on ships such as the RMS Queen Elizabeth 2.
   Asimov was an enormously entertaining, prolific, and sought-after
   public speaker. His sense of timing was exquisite; he never looked at a
   clock, but invariably spoke for precisely the time allocated.

   Asimov was a frequent fixture at science fiction conventions, where he
   remained friendly and approachable. As noted above, he patiently
   answered tens of thousands of questions and other mail with postcards,
   and was pleased to give autographs. Although he was glad to show his
   talent, he also rarely seemed to take himself too seriously.

   He was of medium height, stocky, with muttonchop whiskers and a
   distinct Brooklyn-Yiddish accent. His physical dexterity was very poor.
   He never learned how to swim or ride a bicycle; however, he did learn
   to drive a car after he moved to Boston. In his humor book Asimov
   Laughs Again, he describes Boston driving as "anarchy on wheels."

   Asimov's wide interests included his participation in his later years
   in organizations devoted to the operettas of Gilbert and Sullivan and
   in The Wolfe Pack, a group of devotees of the Nero Wolfe mysteries
   authored by Rex Stout. He was a prominent member of the Baker Street
   Irregulars, the leading Sherlock Holmes society. From 1985 until his
   death in 1992, he was president of the American Humanist Association;
   his successor was his friend and fellow writer Kurt Vonnegut. He was
   also a close friend of Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry, and earned a
   screen credit on Star Trek: The Motion Picture for advice he gave
   during production (generally, confirming to Paramount Pictures that
   Roddenberry's ideas were legitimate science-fictional extrapolation).

   Asimov died on April 6, 1992. He was survived by his second wife,
   Janet, and his children from his first marriage. Ten years after his
   death, Janet Asimov's edition of Asimov's autobiography, It's Been a
   Good Life, revealed that his death was caused by AIDS; he had
   contracted HIV from a blood transfusion received during a heart bypass
   operation . The specific cause of death was heart and renal failure as
   complications of AIDS. Janet Asimov wrote in the epilogue of It's Been
   a Good Life that Asimov had wanted to "go public," but his doctors
   convinced him to remain silent, warning that anti-AIDS prejudice would
   extend to his family members. Asimov's family considered disclosing his
   AIDS infection after he died, but the controversy which erupted when
   Arthur Ashe announced that he had contracted AIDS convinced them
   otherwise. Ten years later, after Asimov's doctors had died, Janet and
   Robyn agreed that the AIDS story could be made public.

Intellectual positions

   Isaac Asimov was a Humanist and a rationalist. He did not oppose
   genuine religious conviction in others, but vocally opposed
   superstitious or unfounded beliefs. During his childhood, his father
   and mother observed Orthodox Jewish traditions, but did not force this
   belief upon Asimov. Thus he grew up without strong religious
   influences, coming to believe that the Bible represented Hebrew
   mythology in the same way that the Iliad recorded Greek mythology. (For
   a brief while his father worked in the local synagogue to enjoy the
   familiar surroundings and "shine as a learned scholar" versed in the
   sacred writings. This experience had little effect upon Isaac beyond
   teaching him the Hebrew alphabet.) For many years, Asimov called
   himself an atheist, though he felt the term was somewhat inadequate,
   describing more what he did not believe than what he did. Later, he
   found the term "humanist" a useful substitute.

   In his last autobiographical book, Asimov wrote, "If I were not an
   atheist, I would believe in a God who would choose to save people on
   the basis of the totality of their lives and not the pattern of their
   words. I think he would prefer an honest and righteous atheist to a TV
   preacher whose every word is God, God, God, and whose every deed is
   foul, foul, foul." The same memoir states his belief that Hell is "the
   drooling dream of a sadist" crudely affixed to an all-merciful God; if
   even human governments were willing to curtail cruel and unusual
   punishments, wondered Asimov, why would punishment in the afterlife not
   be restricted to a limited term? Asimov rejected the idea that a human
   belief or action could merit infinite punishment. If an afterlife of
   just deserts existed, he claimed, the longest and most severe
   punishment would be reserved for those who "slandered God by inventing
   Hell". As his Treasury of Humor and Asimov Laughs Again record, he was
   amply willing to tell jokes involving the Judeo-Christian God, Satan,
   Garden of Eden, and other religious topics, expressing the viewpoint
   that a good joke can do more to provoke thought than hours of
   philosophical discussion.

   Asimov referred to himself as a " Progressive" on most political
   issues, and was a staunch supporter of the Democratic Party. He was a
   vocal opponent of the Vietnam War in the 1960s, and in a television
   interview in the early 1970s he publicly endorsed George McGovern. He
   was unhappy at what he saw as an irrationalist track taken by many
   liberal political activists from the late 1960s onwards. In his
   autobiography In Joy Still Felt, he recalls meeting the counterculture
   figure Abbie Hoffman; Asimov's impression was that the 1960s'
   counterculture heroes had ridden an emotional wave which, in the end,
   left them stranded in a "no-man's land of the spirit" from which he
   wondered if they would ever return. (This attitude is echoed by a
   famous passage in Hunter S. Thompson's Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas.)
   His defense of civil applications of nuclear power even after the Three
   Mile Island incident damaged his relations with some of his fellow
   liberals. In a letter reprinted in Yours, Isaac Asimov, he states that
   though he would prefer living in "no danger whatsoever" than near a
   nuclear reactor, he would still prefer a home near a nuclear power
   plant than in a slum, on Love Canal or near "a Union Carbide plant
   producing methyl isocyanate" (referring to the Bhopal disaster). He
   issued many appeals for population control, reflecting a perspective
   articulated by people from Thomas Malthus through Paul R. Ehrlich.
   Asimov considered himself a feminist even before Women's Liberation
   became a widespread movement; he joked that he wished women to be free
   "because I hate it when they charge". More seriously, he argued that
   the issue of women's rights was closely connected to that of population
   control. Furthermore, he believed that homosexuality must be considered
   a "moral right" on population grounds, as must all consenting adult
   sexual activity which does not lead to reproduction (Yours, Isaac
   Asimov).

   In the closing years of his life, Asimov blamed the deterioration of
   the quality of life that he perceived in New York City on the shrinking
   tax base caused by middle class flight to the suburbs. His last
   non-fiction book, Our Angry Earth (1991, co-written with his long-time
   friend science fiction author Frederik Pohl), deals with elements of
   the environmental crisis such as global warming and the destruction of
   the ozone layer.

Writing

Overview

   Rowena Morrill depicts Asimov enthroned with symbols of his life's work
   Enlarge
   Rowena Morrill depicts Asimov enthroned with symbols of his life's work

   Asimov's career can be divided into several time periods. His early
   career, dominated by science fiction, began with short stories in 1939
   and novels in 1950. This lasted until about 1958, all but ending after
   publication of The Naked Sun. He began publishing nonfiction in 1952,
   co-authoring a college-level textbook called Biochemistry and Human
   Metabolism. Following the brief orbit of the first man-made satellite
   Sputnik I by the USSR in 1957, his production of nonfiction,
   particularly popular science books, greatly increased, with a
   consequent drop in his science fiction output. Over the next quarter
   century, he wrote only four science fiction novels. Starting in 1982,
   the second half of his science fiction career began with the
   publication of Foundation's Edge. From then until his death, Asimov
   published several more sequels and prequels to his existing novels,
   tying them together in a way he had not originally anticipated, making
   a unified series.

   Asimov believed that his most enduring contributions would be his
   "Three Laws of Robotics" and the Foundation Series (see Yours, Isaac
   Asimov, p. 329). Furthermore, the Oxford English Dictionary credits his
   science fiction for introducing the words positronic (an entirely
   fictional technology), psychohistory (frequently used in a different
   sense than the imaginary one Asimov employed) and robotics into the
   English language. Asimov coined the term robotics without suspecting
   that it might be an original word; at the time, he believed it was
   simply the natural analogue of mechanics, hydraulics, and so forth.
   (The original word robot derives from the Czech word for "forced
   labor", robotovat, robota and was first employed by the playwright
   Karel Čapek in R.U.R.(Rossum's Universal Robots).) Unlike his word
   psychohistory, the word robotics continues in mainstream technical use
   with Asimov's original definition. Star Trek: The Next Generation
   featured androids with " positronic brains", namely Data and Lore,
   giving Asimov full credit for inventing this (fictional) technology.

Science fiction

   Asimov began contributing stories to science fiction magazines in 1939,
   " Marooned Off Vesta" being his first published story, written when he
   was 18. Two and a half years later, he published his 32nd short story,
   " Nightfall" (1941), which has been described as one of "the most
   famous science-fiction stories of all time". In 1968 the Science
   Fiction Writers of America voted "Nightfall" the best science fiction
   short story ever written. In his short story collection Nightfall and
   Other Stories he wrote, "The writing of 'Nightfall' was a watershed in
   my professional career ... I was suddenly taken seriously and the world
   of science fiction became aware that I existed. As the years passed, in
   fact, it became evident that I had written a 'classic'".

   "Nightfall" is an archetypical example of social science fiction, a
   term coined by Asimov to describe a new trend in the 1940s, led by
   authors including Asimov and Heinlein, away from gadgets and space
   opera and toward speculation about the human condition.

   In 1942 he began his Foundation stories—later collected in the
   Foundation Trilogy: Foundation (1951), Foundation and Empire (1952),
   and Second Foundation (1953)—which recount the collapse and rebirth of
   a vast interstellar empire in a universe of the future. Taken together,
   they are his most famous work of science fiction, along with the Robot
   Series. Many years later, he continued the series with Foundation's
   Edge (1982) and Foundation and Earth (1986), and then went back to
   before the original trilogy with Prelude to Foundation (1988) and
   Forward the Foundation (1992). The series features his fictional
   science of Psychohistory in which the future course of the history of
   large populations can be predicted.

   His robot stories—many of which were collected in I, Robot (1950)—were
   begun at about the same time. They promulgated a set of rules of ethics
   for robots (see Three Laws of Robotics) and intelligent machines that
   greatly influenced other writers and thinkers in their treatment of the
   subject. One such short story, " The Bicentennial Man", was made into a
   film starring Robin Williams.

   The recent film I, Robot, starring Will Smith, was based on the
   Hardwired script by Jeff Vintar with Asimov's ideas incorporated later
   after acquiring the rights to the I, Robot title. It is not related to
   the I, Robot script by Harlan Ellison, who collaborated with Asimov
   himself to create a version that captured the spirit of the original.
   Asimov is quoted as saying that Ellison's screenplay would lead to "the
   first really adult, complex, worthwhile science fiction movie ever
   made". The screenplay was published in book form in 1994, after hopes
   of seeing it in film form were becoming slim. See: I, Robot,

   Besides movies, his Foundation and Robot stories have inspired other
   derivative works of science fiction literature, many by well-known and
   established authors such as Roger MacBride Allen, Greg Bear, Gregory
   Benford and David Brin. These appear to have been done with the
   blessing, and often at the request of, Asimov's widow Janet Asimov.

   In 1948 he also wrote a spoof science article, " The Endochronic
   Properties of Resublimated Thiotimoline". At the time, Asimov was
   preparing for his own doctoral dissertation. Fearing a prejudicial
   reaction from his Ph.D. evaluation board, he asked his editor that it
   be released under a pseudonym, yet it appeared under his own name.
   During his oral examination shortly thereafter, Asimov grew concerned
   at the scrutiny he received. At the end of the examination, one
   evaluator turned to him, smiling, and said "Mr. Asimov, tell us
   something about the thermodynamic properties of the compound
   thiotimoline". After a 20-minute wait, he was summoned back into the
   Examination Room and congratulated as "Dr. Asimov."

   He continued writing short stories for science fiction magazines in the
   1950s, which he referred to as his golden decade. A number of these are
   included in his Best of anthology, including " The Last Question"
   (1956), on the ability of humankind to cope with and reverse entropy.
   It was his personal favorite and considered by many to be a contender
   to "Nightfall". Asimov wrote of it in 1973:

   “ Why is it my favorite? For one thing I got the idea all at once and
         didn't have to fiddle with it; and I wrote it in white-heat and
     scarcely had to change a word. This sort of things endears any story to
                                   any writer.

      Then, too, it has had the strangest effect on my readers. Frequently
     someone writes to ask me if I can give them the name of a story, which
       they think I may have written, and tell them where to find it. They
         don't remember the title but when they describe the story it is
       invariably "The Last Question". This has reached the point where I
      recently received a long-distance phone call from a desperate man who
      began, "Dr. Asimov, there's a story I think you wrote, whose title I
     can't remember—" at which point I interrupted to tell him it was "The
     Last Question" and when I described the plot it proved to be indeed the
        story he was after. I left him convinced I could read minds at a
                          distance of a thousand miles.
                                                                            „

   In December 1974, the former Beatle Paul McCartney approached Asimov
   and asked him if he could write the screenplay for a science-fiction
   movie musical. McCartney had a vague idea for the plot and a small
   scrap of dialogue; he wished to make a film about a rock band whose
   members discover they are being impersonated by a group of
   extraterrestrials. The band and their imposters would likely be played
   by McCartney's group Wings, then at the height of their career.
   Intrigued by the idea, although he was not generally a fan of rock
   music, Asimov quickly produced a "treatment" or brief outline of the
   story. He adhered to McCartney's overall idea, producing a story he
   felt to be moving and dramatic. However, he did not make use of
   McCartney's brief scrap of dialogue, and probably in consequence,
   McCartney rejected the story. The treatment now exists only in Boston
   University's archives.

   Beginning in 1977, he lent his name to Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction
   Magazine (now Asimov's Science Fiction) and penned an editorial for
   each issue. There was also a short-lived Asimov's SF Adventure Magazine
   and a companion Asimov's Science Fiction Anthology reprint series,
   published as magazines (in the same manner as stablemates Ellery
   Queen's Mystery Magazine and Alfred Hitchcock's Mystery Magazine's
   "anthologies").

Popular science

   During the late 1950s and 1960s, Asimov shifted gears somewhat, and
   substantially decreased his fiction output (he published only four
   adult novels between 1957's The Naked Sun and 1982's Foundation's Edge,
   two of which were mysteries). At the same time, he greatly increased
   his non-fiction production, writing mostly on science topics; the
   launch of Sputnik in 1957 engendered public concern over a "science
   gap", which Asimov's publishers were eager to fill with as much
   material as he could write.

   Meanwhile, the monthly Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction invited
   him to continue his regular non-fiction column, begun in the now-folded
   bimonthly companion magazine Venture Science Fiction, ostensibly
   dedicated to popular science, but with Asimov having complete editorial
   freedom. The first of the F&SF columns appeared in November of 1958,
   and they followed uninterrupted thereafter, with 399 entries, until
   Asimov's terminal illness took its toll. These columns, periodically
   collected into books by his principal publisher, Doubleday, helped make
   Asimov's reputation as a "Great Explainer" of science, and were
   referred to by him as his only pop-science writing in which he never
   had to assume complete ignorance of the subjects at hand on the part of
   his readers. The popularity of his first wide-ranging reference work,
   The Intelligent Man's Guide to Science, also allowed him to give up
   most of his academic responsibilities and become essentially a
   full-time freelance writer.

   Asimov wrote several essays on the social contentions of his time,
   including "Thinking About Thinking" and "Science: Knock Plastic"
   (1967).

   The great variety of information covered in Asimov's writings once
   prompted Kurt Vonnegut to ask, "How does it feel to know everything?"
   Asimov replied that he only knew how it felt to have the reputation of
   omniscience—"Uneasy". (See In Joy Still Felt, chapter 30.) In the
   introduction to his story collection Slow Learner, Thomas Pynchon
   admitted that he relied upon Asimov's science popularizations (and the
   Oxford English Dictionary) to provide his knowledge of entropy.

   It is a mark of the friendship and respect accorded Asimov by Arthur C.
   Clarke that the so-called "Asimov-Clarke Treaty of Park Avenue", put
   together as they shared a cab ride along Park Avenue in New York,
   stated that Asimov was required to insist that Clarke was the best
   science fiction writer in the world (reserving second best for
   himself), while Clarke was required to insist that Asimov was the best
   science writer in the world (reserving second best for himself). Thus
   the dedication in Clarke's book Report on Planet Three (1972) reads:
   "In accordance with the terms of the Clarke-Asimov treaty, the
   second-best science writer dedicates this book to the second-best
   science-fiction writer."

Other

   In addition to his interest in science, Asimov was also greatly
   interested in history. Starting in the 1960s, he wrote 14 popular
   history books, most notably The Greeks: A Great Adventure (1965), The
   Roman Republic (1966), The Roman Empire (1967), "The Egyptians" (1967)
   and "The Near East: 10,000 Years of History" (1968).

   He published Asimov's Guide to the Bible in two volumes— covering the
   Old Testament in 1967 and the New Testament in 1969— and then combined
   them into one 1,300-page volume in 1981. Replete with maps and tables,
   the guide goes through the books of the Bible in order, explaining the
   history of each one and the political influences that affected it, as
   well as biographical information about the important characters.

   Never entirely lacking wit and humor, towards the end of his life
   Asimov published a series of collections of limericks, mostly written
   by himself, starting with Lecherous Limericks, which appeared in 1975.
   Limericks: Too Gross, whose title displays Asimov's love of puns,
   contains 144 limericks by Asimov and an equal number by John Ciardi. He
   even created a slim volume of Sherlockian limericks (and embarrassed
   one fan by autographing her copy with an impromptu limerick that rhymed
   'Nancy' with 'romancy'). Asimov's best attempt at Yiddish humor is
   found in Azazel, The Two Centimeter Demon in which the two characters,
   both Jewish, talk over dinner, or lunch, or breakfast, the anecdotes of
   "George" and his friend Azazel. Asimov's Treasury of Humor is both a
   working joke book and a treatise propounding his views on humor theory.
   According to Asimov, the most essential element of humor is an abrupt
   change in point of view, one that suddenly shifts focus from the
   important to the trivial, or from the sublime to the ridiculous.

   Particularly in his later years, Asimov to some extent cultivated an
   image of himself as an amiable lecher. In 1971, as a response to the
   popularity of sexual guidebooks such as The Sensuous Woman (by "J") and
   The Sensuous Man (by "M"), Asimov published The Sensuous Dirty Old Man
   under the byline "Dr. 'A'", but with his full name prominently
   displayed on the cover.

   Asimov published two volumes of autobiography: In Memory Yet Green
   (1979) and In Joy Still Felt (1980). A third autobiography, I. Asimov:
   A Memoir, was published in April 1994. The epilogue was written by his
   widow Janet Asimov a decade after his death. It's Been a Good Life
   (2002), edited by Janet, is a condensed version of his three
   autobiographies.

   Asimov and Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry developed a rather unique
   relationship during Star Trek's initial launch in the late 60's. Asimov
   wrote a critical essay on Star Trek's scientific accuracy for TV guide
   magazine. Roddenberry retorted respectfully with a personal letter
   explaining the limitations of accuracy when writing a weekly series.
   Asimov corrected himself with a follow-up essay to TV Guide claiming
   despite it's inaccuracies, that Star Trek was a fresh and
   intellectually challenging science fiction television show. The two
   remained friends since to where Asimov even served as an advisor on a
   number of Star Trek projects.

Literary themes

   Spoiler warning: Plot and/or ending details follow.

   Much of Asimov's fiction dealt with themes of paternalism. His first
   robot story, " Robbie", concerned a robotic nanny. Lenny deals with the
   capacity of robopsychologist Susan Calvin to feel maternal love towards
   a robot whose positronic brain capacities are those of a 3-year-old. As
   the robots grew more sophisticated, their interventions became more
   wide-reaching and subtle. In " Evidence", a robot masquerading as a
   human successfully runs for elective office. In " The Evitable
   Conflict", the robots run humanity from behind the scenes, acting as
   nannies to the whole species.

   Later, in The Robots of Dawn and Robots and Empire, a robot develops
   what he calls the Zeroth Law of Robotics, which states that: "A robot
   may not injure humanity, nor, through inaction, allow humanity to come
   to harm". He also decides that robotic presence is stifling humanity's
   freedom, and that the best course of action is for the robots to phase
   themselves out. A non-robot, time travel novel, The End of Eternity,
   features a similar conflict and resolution. The significance of the
   Zeroth Law is that it outweighs and supersedes all other Laws of
   Robotics: if a robot finds himself in a situation whereby he must
   murder one or more humans (a direct violation of the First Law of
   Robotics) in order to protect all of humanity (and preserve the Zeroth
   Law), then the robot's positronic programming will require him to
   commit murder for humanity's sake.

   In The Foundation Series (which did not originally have robots), a
   scientist implements a semi-secret plan to create a new galactic empire
   over the course of 1,000 years. This series has its version of Platonic
   guardians, called the Second Foundation, to perfect and protect the
   plan. When Asimov stopped writing the series in the 1950s, the Second
   Foundation was depicted as benign protectors of humanity. When he
   revisited the series in the 1980s, he made the paternalistic themes
   even more explicit.

   Foundation's Edge introduced the planet Gaia, obviously based on the
   Gaia hypothesis. Every animal, plant, and mineral on Gaia participated
   in a shared consciousness, forming a single super-mind working together
   for the greater good. In Foundation and Earth, the protagonist must
   decide whether or not to allow the development of Galaxia, a larger
   version of Gaia, encompassing the entire galaxy. Gaia is one of
   Asimov's best attempts at exploring the possibility of a collective
   awareness, and is compounded further in Nemesis, in which the planet
   Erythro composed primarily of prokaryotic life has a mind of its own
   and seeks communion with human beings.

   Foundation and Earth introduces robots to the Foundation universe. Two
   of Asimov's last novels, Prelude to Foundation and Forward the
   Foundation, explore their behaviour in fuller detail. The robots are
   depicted as covert operatives, acting for the benefit of humanity.

   Another frequent theme, perhaps the reverse of paternalism, is social
   oppression. The Currents of Space takes place on a planet where a
   unique plant fibre is grown; the agricultural workers there are
   exploited by the aristocrats of a nearby planet. In The Stars, Like
   Dust, the hero helps a planet that is oppressed by an arrogant
   interplanetary empire, the Tyranni.

   Often the victims of oppression are either Earth people (as opposed to
   colonists on other planets) or robots. In "The Bicentennial Man", a
   robot fights prejudice to be accepted as a human. In The Caves of
   Steel, the people of Earth resent the wealthier "Spacers" and in turn
   treat robots (associated with the Spacers) in ways reminiscent of how
   whites treated blacks, such as addressing robots as "boy". Pebble in
   the Sky shows an analogous situation: the Galactic Empire rules Earth
   and its people use such terms as "Earthie- squaw", but Earth is a
   theocratic dictatorship that enforces euthanasia of anyone older than
   60. One hero is Bel Arvardan, an upper-class Galactic archeologist who
   must overcome his prejudices. The other is Joseph Schwartz, a
   62-year-old 20th-century American who had emigrated from Europe, where
   his people were persecuted (he is quite possibly Jewish), and is
   accidentally transported forward in time to Arvardan's period. He must
   decide whether to help a downtrodden society that thinks he should be
   dead.

   Yet another frequent theme in Asimov is rational thought. He invented
   the science-fiction mystery with the novel The Caves of Steel and the
   stories in Asimov's Mysteries, usually playing fair with the reader by
   introducing early in the story any science or technology involved in
   the solution. Later, he produced non-SF mysteries, including the novel
   Murder at the ABA (1976) and the " Black Widowers" and "Union Club"
   short stories, in which he followed the same rule. In his fiction,
   important scenes are often essentially debates, with the more rational,
   humane—or persuasive—side winning.

Awards

     * 1957 Thomas Alva Edison Foundation Award, for Building Blocks of
       the Universe
     * 1960 Howard W. Blakeslee Award from the American Heart Association
       for The Living River
     * 1962 Boston University's Publication Merit Award
     * 1963 special Hugo Award for "adding science to science fiction" for
       essays published in the Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction
     * 1965 James T. Grady Award of the American Chemical Society
     * 1966 Best All-time Novel Series Hugo Award for the Foundation
       series
     * 1967 Westinghouse Science Writing Award
     * 1973 Hugo Award
     * 1973 Nebula Award for Best Novel for The Gods Themselves
     * 1977 Hugo Award
     * 1977 Nebula Award for Best Novelette for The Bicentennial Man
     * In 1981 an asteroid, 5020 Asimov, was named in his honour
     * 1987 Nebula Grandmaster award, a lifetime achievement award
     * 1983 Hugo Award for Best Novel for Foundation's Edge
     * 1992 Hugo Award for Best Novelette for Gold
     * 1995 Hugo Award for Best Nonfiction for I. Asimov: A Memoir
     * 1996 -- A 1946 Retro-Hugo for Best Novel of 1945 was given at the
       1996 WorldCon to The Mule, the 7th Foundation story published in
       Astounding Science Fiction

     * 14 honorary doctorate degrees from various universities

     * 1997 posthumous induction into the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall
       of Fame

Criticisms

   One of the most common impressions of Asimov's fiction work is that his
   writing style is extremely unornamental. In 1980, SF scholar James Gunn
   wrote of I, Robot that:

          Except for two stories—" Liar!" and " Evidence"—they are not
          stories in which character plays a significant part. Virtually
          all plot develops in conversation with little if any action. Nor
          is there a great deal of local colour or description of any
          kind. The dialogue is, at best, functional and the style is, at
          best, transparent.... The robot stories—and, as a matter of
          fact, almost all Asimov fiction—play themselves on a relatively
          bare stage.

   This description applies to a large proportion of Asimov's fiction,
   including that written after 1980. However, it is worth noting that
   this applies to the majority of science fiction produced during the
   so-called "Golden Age" of science fiction. It has been argued that
   early science fiction authors were deliberately more focused on
   imagining future technologies rather than in-depth characterization.
   While this trend appears to have played itself out, it is still
   apparent even in modern-day science fiction that the interactions of
   the character with the technology and future social situations are
   frequently of greater importance than the characters themselves.

   Gunn observes that there are places where Asimov's style rises to the
   demands of the situation; he cites the climax of "Liar!" as an example.
   Sharply-drawn characters occur at key junctures of his storylines: in
   addition to Susan Calvin in "Liar!" and "Evidence", we find Arkady
   Darell in Second Foundation, Elijah Baley in The Caves of Steel and
   Hari Seldon in the Foundation prequels. (In Forward the Foundation,
   Seldon becomes a partial mirror of Asimov himself.)

   These criticisms are to some extent the flip side of Asimov's
   aforementioned rationalism: his books, like his characters, tend to be
   cerebral and more interested in ideas and puzzles than in character and
   feeling. His idea of " psychohistory," where the individual quirks of
   human beings could be averaged out at the statistical level of an
   entire galaxy's population, is perhaps revealing in that regard. What
   helps keep Asimov's fiction readable is the charm of the author, which
   is conveyed to his characters.

   Asimov was also criticised for the lack of sex and aliens in his
   science fiction. Asimov once explained that his reluctance to write
   about aliens came from an incident early in his career when
   Astounding's editor John Campbell rejected one of his early science
   fiction stories because the alien characters were portrayed as superior
   to the humans. He decided that, rather than write weak alien
   characters, he would not write about aliens at all. Nevertheless, in
   response to these criticisms he wrote The Gods Themselves, which
   contains aliens, sex, and alien sex. Asimov said that of all his
   writings, he was most proud of the middle section of The Gods
   Themselves.

   Others have criticised him for a lack of strong female characters in
   his early work. In his autobiographical writings he acknowledges this,
   and responds by pointing to inexperience. His later novels, written
   with more female characters but in essentially the same prose style as
   his early SF stories, brought this matter to a wider audience. One of
   the most notable of these female characters could be said to be Dors
   Venabili, even though it is acknowledged she was a humaniform robot.
   For example, the 25 August 1985 Washington Post's "Book World" section
   reports of Robots and Empire as follows:

          In 1940, Asimov's humans were stripped-down masculine portraits
          of Americans from 1940, and they still are. His robots were tin
          cans with speedlines like an old Studebaker, and still are; the
          Robot tales depended on an increasingly unworkable distinction
          between movable and unmovable artificial intelligences, and
          still do. In the Asimov universe, because it was conceived a
          long time ago, and because its author abhors confusion, there
          are no computers whose impact is worth noting, no social
          complexities, no genetic engineering, aliens, arcologies,
          multiverses, clones, sin or sex; his heroes (in this case R.
          Daneel Olivaw, whom we first met as the robot protagonist of The
          Caves of Steel and its sequels) feel no pressure of information,
          raw or cooked, as the simplest of us do today; they suffer no
          deformation from the winds of the Asimov future, because it is
          so deeply and strikingly orderly.

   This is perhaps slightly overstating the issue given that, for example,
   The Naked Sun (1957) deals with social issues as a core part of its
   central setting and motivation, depicts genetic engineering in the
   guise of eugenics as a fundamental part of that society, presents the
   reader with inverted arcologies where a single person is the focal
   point of the artificial environment as well as a hero who hails from a
   "normal" archology on earth. Meanwhile, totally artificial birth,
   although not specifically cloning, is the aim of the leaders of the
   society, sexual want is the major driving force of the main female
   character albeit veiled in 1950s sensibilities, and the entire story is
   used to make the point that too much order is ultimately a stagnant
   dead end to be avoided.

   Be that as it may, a considerable portion of such criticism boils down
   to the charge that Asimov's works are simply dated. In fact, some
   details of Asimov's imaginary future technology as he described more
   than 50 years ago have not aged well. He, for example, described
   powerful robots and computers from the distant future as still using
   punch cards or punched tape and engineers using slide rules. In one
   dramatic scene in Foundation and Empire a character gets the news by
   buying a paper at a vending machine. His knowledge of a newborn's
   psychology (in Second Foundation) is also incorrect .

   In addition, his stories also have occasional internal contradictions:
   names and dates given in The Foundation Series do not always agree with
   one another, for example. Some such errors may plausibly be due to
   mistakes the characters make, since characters in Asimov stories are
   seldom fully informed about their own situations. Other contradictions
   resulted from the many years elapsed between the time Asimov began the
   Foundation series and when he resumed work on it; occasionally,
   advances in scientific knowledge forced him to revise his own fictional
   history.

   Other than books by Gunn and Patrouch, there is a relative dearth of
   "literary" criticism on Asimov (particularly when compared to the sheer
   volume of his output). Cowart and Wymer's Dictionary of Literary
   Biography (1981) gives a possible reason:

          His words do not easily lend themselves to traditional literary
          criticism because he has the habit of centering his fiction on
          plot and clearly stating to his reader, in rather direct terms,
          what is happening in his stories and why it is happening. In
          fact, most of the dialogue in an Asimov story, and particularly
          in the Foundation trilogy, is devoted to such exposition.
          Stories that clearly state what they mean in unambiguous
          language are the most difficult for a scholar to deal with
          because there is little to be interpreted.

   In fairness, Gunn and Patrouch's respective studies of Asimov both take
   the stand that a clear, direct prose style is still a style. Gunn's
   1982 book goes into considerable depth commenting upon each of Asimov's
   novels published to that date. He does not praise all of Asimov's
   fiction (nor does Patrouch), but he does call some passages in The
   Caves of Steel "reminiscent of Proust". When discussing how that novel
   depicts night falling over futuristic New York City, Gunn says that
   Asimov's prose "need not be ashamed anywhere in literary society".

   Although he prided himself on his unornamented prose style (for which
   he credited Clifford Simak as an early influence), Asimov also enjoyed
   giving his longer stories complicated narrative structures, often by
   arranging chapters in non- chronological ways. Some readers have been
   put off by this, complaining that the nonlinearity is not worth the
   trouble and adversely impacts the clarity of the story. For example,
   the first third of The Gods Themselves begins with Chapter 6, then
   backtracks to fill in earlier material. (John Campbell advised Asimov
   to begin his stories as late in the plot as possible. This advice
   helped Asimov create " Reason," one of the early Robot stories. See In
   Memory Yet Green for details of that time period.) Asimov's tendency to
   contort his timelines is perhaps most apparent in his later novel
   Nemesis, in which one group of characters live in the "present" and
   another group starts in the "past", beginning 15 years earlier and
   gradually moving toward the time period of the first group.

   In 2002, Donald Palumbo, an English professor at East Carolina
   University, published Chaos Theory, Asimov’s Foundations and Robots,
   and Herbert’s Dune: The Fractal Aesthetic of Epic Science Fiction. This
   includes a review of Asimov's narrative structures that compares them
   with the scientific concepts of fractals and chaos. Palumbo finds that
   a fascination with the Foundation and Robot metaseries remains, and he
   determines that the purposeful complexities of the narrative build
   unusual symmetric and recursive structures to be perceived by the
   mind's eye. This volume contains some of the most scholarly and
   in-depth criticism of Asimov to date.

   John Jenkins, who has reviewed the vast majority of Asimov's written
   output, once observed,

          It has been pointed out that most science fiction writers since
          the 1950s have been affected by Asimov, either modeling their
          style on his or deliberately avoiding anything like his style.

   In the Hugo Award-winning novella, " Gold", Asimov describes an author
   clearly based on himself who has one of his books ( The Gods
   Themselves) adapted into a "compu-drama", essentially photo-realistic
   computer animation. The director criticizes the fictionalized Asimov
   ("Gregory Laborian") for having an extremely non-visual style making it
   difficult to adapt his work, and the author explains that he relies on
   ideas and dialogue rather than description to get his points across.
   Ironically, the story mimics the same style the author in it uses to
   describe his work, and one can see it as Asimov's reply to his critics.

Quotations

     * "When asked what I would do if my doctor told me I had only six
       months to live, I answered 'I'd type faster'."
     * "Writing, to me, is simply thinking through my fingers."
     * "Night was a wonderful time in Brooklyn in the 1930s. Air
       conditioning was unknown except in movie houses, and so was
       television. There was nothing to keep one in the house.
       Furthermore, few people owned automobiles, so there was nothing to
       carry one away. That left the streets and the stoops. The very
       fullness served as an inhibition to crime."
     * "What I will be remembered for are the Foundation Trilogy and the
       Three Laws of Robotics. What I want to be remembered for is no one
       book, or no dozen books. Any single thing I have written can be
       paralleled or even surpassed by something someone else has done.
       However, my total corpus for quantity, quality and variety can be
       duplicated by no one else. That is what I want to be remembered
       for", September 20, 1973, Yours, Isaac Asimov, page 329.
     * "Violence is the last refuge of the incompetent." as Salvor Hardin
     * "Never let your sense of morals stop you from doing what is right"
       as Salvor Hardin
     * "The most exciting phrase to hear in science, the one that heralds
       new discoveries, is not ' Eureka!' (I found it) - but 'That's
       funny...'"
     * (Being asked what would make one of his books sell better) "Put my
       name in really big letters."

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