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Julius and Ethel Rosenberg

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   Ethel and Julius Rosenberg after their conviction for "conspiracy to
   commit espionage."
   Enlarge
   Ethel and Julius Rosenberg after their conviction for "conspiracy to
   commit espionage."

   Julius Rosenberg ( May 12, 1918 – June 19, 1953) and Ethel Greenglass
   Rosenberg ( September 28, 1915 – June 19, 1953) were American
   Communists who received international attention when they were executed
   for passing nuclear weapons secrets to the Soviet Union.

   In the 1990s, Soviet communications decrypted in the VENONA project
   were released which supported the general allegations of espionage by
   Julius, though not supporting the specific charges on which the
   Rosenbergs were convicted. Also supporting the conviction were Soviet
   Premier Nikita Khrushchev's posthumously published memoirs.

Background

   Julius Rosenberg was born to a Jewish family on May 12, 1918 in New
   York City. He became a leader in the Young Communist League where, in
   1936, he met Ethel, whom he married three years later. He graduated
   from the City College of New York with a degree in electrical
   engineering in 1939 and in 1940 joined the Army Signal Corps, where he
   worked on radar equipment.

   Ethel Greenglass was born on September 28, 1915 in New York City, also
   to a Jewish family. She was an aspiring actress and singer, but
   eventually took a secretarial job at a shipping company. She became
   involved in labor disputes and joined the Young Communist League, where
   she first met Julius. The Rosenbergs had two sons.

   According to his former KGB handler, Alexander Feklisov, Julius
   Rosenberg was originally recruited by the KGB on Labor Day 1942, by
   former KGB spymaster Semyon Semyonov. Julius had been introduced to
   Semenov by Bernard Schuster, a high ranking member of the Communist
   Party USA as well as Earl Browder's personal KGB liaison. After Semenov
   was recalled to Moscow in 1944, his duties were taken over by his
   apprentice, Alexander Feklisov.

   According to Feklisov, Julius was his most dedicated and valuable
   asset, providing thousands of classified reports from Emerson Radio
   including a complete proximity fuze, the same design that was used to
   shoot down Francis Gary Powers's U-2 in 1960. Under Feklisov
   administration, Julius Rosenberg is said to have recruited sympathetic
   individuals to the KGB’s service, including Joel Barr, Al Sarant,
   William Perl and Morton Sobell.

   According to Feklisov's account, he was supplied by Perl, under Julius
   Rosenberg’s direction, with thousands of documents from the National
   Advisory Committee for Aeronautics including a complete set of design
   and production drawings for the Lockheed's P-80 Shooting Star. Feklisov
   says he learned through Julius that his brother-in-law David Greenglass
   was working on the top secret Manhattan Project at Los Alamos, and used
   Julius to recruit him.

   During World War II, the USSR and the US became allies in war, but the
   US government was highly suspicious of Joseph Stalin's intentions. As
   such, the Americans did not share information or seek assistance from
   the Soviet Union for the Manhattan Project. However, the Soviets were
   aware of the project as a result of espionage penetration of the US
   government and had made a number of attempts to infiltrate its
   operations at the University of California, Berkeley. A number of
   project members—some high-profile, others lower in rank — did
   voluntarily give secret information to Soviet agents, many because they
   were sympathetic to communism (or the Soviet Union's role in the war)
   and did not feel that the US should have a monopoly on atomic weapons

   After the war, the US continued to resist efforts to share nuclear
   secrets, but the Soviet Union was able to produce its own atomic
   weapons by 1949. Its first nuclear test, " Joe 1", shocked the West in
   the speed it was produced. It was then discovered in January 1950 that
   Klaus Fuchs, a German refugee theoretical physicist working for the
   British mission in the Manhattan Project, had given key documents to
   the Russians throughout the war. Through Fuchs' confession, US and UK
   intelligence agents were able to make a case against his "courier",
   Harry Gold, who was arrested on May 23, 1950. A former machinist at the
   top-secret Los Alamos laboratory, Sgt. David Greenglass, confessed to
   having passed secret information on to the USSR through Gold as well.
   He testified that his sister, Ethel Rosenberg, and her husband, Julius,
   had also passed secrets. Another accused conspirator, Morton Sobell,
   fled to Mexico City, but was later deported back to the United States
   for trial.

Trial and conviction

   Police photograph of Julius Rosenberg after his arrest.
   Enlarge
   Police photograph of Julius Rosenberg after his arrest.
   Mugshot of Ethel Rosenberg.
   Enlarge
   Mugshot of Ethel Rosenberg.

   The case against the Rosenbergs and Sobell began on March 6, 1951. The
   prosecution's primary witness, David Greenglass, stated that his sister
   Ethel typed notes containing US nuclear secrets in the Rosenberg
   apartment in September 1945. He also asserted that a sketch he made of
   a cross section of the implosion-type atom bomb (the one dropped on
   Nagasaki as opposed to the "gun method" triggering device that was in
   the one dropped on Hiroshima) was also turned over to Julius Rosenberg
   at that meeting.

   From the beginning, the trial attracted a high amount of media
   attention, and like the trial of Alger Hiss, generated a largely
   polarized response from observers, some of whom believed the Rosenbergs
   to be clearly guilty, and others who asserted their innocence. The
   difference from the Hiss case is that the controversy over the fairness
   of the trial and the guilt or innocence of the Rosenbergs did not begin
   until five months after the trial because the media did not publish one
   word questioning the verdict in the case. (There were a few references
   to the severity of the death penalty but even the Communist Party
   newspaper the Daily Worker did not publish anything questioning the
   guilty verdict until much later.)

   Although the notes typed by Ethel apparently contained little that was
   relevant to the Soviet atomic bomb project, this was sufficient
   evidence for the grand jury to indict Ethel and enough for the jury to
   convict on the conspiracy to commit espionage charge. Supporters today
   feel that a capital charge of conspiracy to commit espionage was not
   only far too severe, but was not supported by the available evidence.

   It is believed that part of the reason Ethel was indicted in addition
   to Julius was so that the prosecution could use her as a 'lever' to
   pressure Julius into giving up the names of others who were involved.
   If that was the case, it did not work. On the witness stand, Julius
   asserted his right under the Fifth Amendment to not incriminate himself
   whenever asked about his involvement in the Communist Party or with its
   members. Ethel did similarly. Neither defendant was viewed
   sympathetically by the jury.

   Investigations into the couple's history revealed evidence that Julius
   Rosenberg had many dealings with an NKVD agent. Since the end of the
   Cold War, the Russian government has released documentation that
   demonstrates that Julius Rosenberg was providing secret information to
   the NKVD. Alexander Feklisov has stated in a memoir and in many
   interviews that he was Julius Rosenberg's control agent, and met Julius
   on over 50 occasions over a three year period beginning in 1943.
   Feklisov said that, though Julius had provided military secrets, he was
   never able to provide any information of substance concerning the
   atomic bomb. He also said that Ethel Rosenberg, as a "probationer," did
   not meet directly with Soviet Agent handlers, but she assisted Julius's
   activities and the products of other members of the group. Somewhat
   contradictorily, Soviet intelligence control agents nevertheless have
   stated that both Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were considered for
   recommendations in recognition of their services, describing their
   espionage activities as an important contribution to the Soviet state.
   In his memoirs, published posthumously in 1990, Nikita Khrushchev
   praised the pair for their "very significant help in accelerating the
   production of our atomic bomb".

   The role played by Assistant United States Attorney Roy Cohn, the
   prosecutor in the case, is controversial, since Cohn stated in his
   autobiography that he influenced the selection of the judge, and pushed
   him to impose the death penalty on both Ethel and Julius Rosenberg.

   The Rosenbergs were convicted on March 29, 1951, and on April 5 were
   sentenced to death by Judge Irving Kaufman under section 2 of the
   Espionage Act, 50 U.S. Code 32 (now 18 U.S. Code 794), which prohibits
   transmitting or attempting to transmit to a foreign government
   information "relating to the national defense." The conviction helped
   to fuel Senator Joseph McCarthy's investigations into anti-American
   activities by US citizens. While their devotion to the Communist cause
   was well documented, the Rosenbergs denied the espionage charges even
   as they faced the electric chair.

   The couple were the only two American civilians to be executed for
   espionage-related activity during the Cold War. In imposing the death
   penalty, Judge Kaufman noted that he held them responsible not only for
   espionage but also for the deaths of the Korean War:

     I consider your crime worse than murder...I believe your conduct in
     putting into the hands of the Russians the A-Bomb years before our
     best scientists predicted Russia would perfect the bomb has already
     caused, in my opinion, the Communist aggression in Korea, with the
     resultant casualties exceeding 50,000 and who knows but that
     millions more of innocent people may pay the price of your treason.
     Indeed, by your betrayal you undoubtedly have altered the course of
     history to the disadvantage of our country. No one can say that we
     do not live in a constant state of tension. We have evidence of your
     treachery all around us every day for the civilian defense
     activities throughout the nation are aimed at preparing us for an
     atom bomb attack.

   Their case has been at the centre of the controversy over communism in
   the United States ever since, with supporters steadfastly maintaining
   that their conviction was an egregious example of persecution typical
   of the "hysteria" of those times (see Red Scare, McCarthyism) and
   likening it to the witch hunts that marred Salem and medieval Europe (a
   comparison that provided the inspiration for Arthur Miller's critically
   acclaimed play, The Crucible).

   At the time, some Americans believed both Rosenbergs were innocent or
   received too harsh a punishment, and a grass-roots campaign was started
   to try to stop the couple's execution. Other Americans felt that the
   couple got what they deserved. Pope Pius XII appealed to President
   Dwight D. Eisenhower to spare the couple, but he refused on February
   11, 1953, and all other appeals were also unsuccessful.

Execution

   The couple were executed in the electric chair on June 19, 1953.
   Reports of the execution state that Julius died after the first
   application of electricity, but Ethel did not succumb immediately and
   was subjected to two more electrical charges before being pronounced
   dead. The chair was designed for a man of average size; and Ethel
   Rosenberg was a petite woman: this discrepancy resulted, it is claimed,
   in the electrodes fitting poorly and making poor electrical contact.
   Eyewitness testimony describes smoke rising from her head.

Posthumous revelations

   In 1995, the National Security Agency publicly released documents from
   the VENONA project, an effort to decrypt intercepted communications
   between Soviet agents and the NKVD/ KGB. A 1944 cable from New York to
   Moscow clearly indicates that Julius Rosenberg was engaged in espionage
   for the Soviet Union, though the importance of his effort is not clear,
   particularly considering that the Soviets were receiving information on
   the Atomic bomb from Klaus Fuchs, Donald Maclean and Theodore Alvin
   Hall (another scientist at Los Alamos). Ethel's involvement is not
   clear from the VENONA transcripts. A document from November 27, 1944
   specifically about Ethel lists her as a "fellowcountryman" and claims
   that she was aware of Julius' work. Ethel was apparently never assigned
   a code name — the only reference to her states she "does not work".
   Julius was always referred to as "ANTENNA" or "LIBERAL" — which has
   cast doubt onto her significance and involvement. In his memoirs,
   published posthumously in 1990, Nikita Khrushchev praised the pair for
   their "very significant help in accelerating the production of our
   atomic bomb." Whether this was in fact the case, however, has been
   disputed.

   Faced with the VENONA transcripts and periodic revelations from former
   Soviet intelligence officials and archives, most critiques of the
   Rosenbergs' prosecution today centers around the usefulness of
   classified information provided by the Rosenbergs to the Soviet Union,
   the severity of their punishment, and the fact that not all Soviet
   spies were caught, and not all who were caught were prosecuted by the
   U.S. government. David Greenglass claimed that the atom bomb
   information believed to be given to the Soviets by Greenglass was quite
   poor in comparison to the information given by Fuchs, who had a much
   more intimate understanding of the research being done (revealed by
   records of Fuchs' detailed transmissions in selective releases from
   Soviet archives). There was also significant information provided
   independently of Fuchs by the young scientist Theodore Alvin Hall, as
   well as a number of other agents, the identities of whom have not yet
   been fully established.

   Fuchs' data was most valuable of all of the Soviet atomic spies, giving
   a range of specific information on everything from nuclear physics
   details, production of the plants for uranium enrichment, and the exact
   values for the bomb design itself. However, it was standard Soviet
   intelligence policy to use several intelligence sources if at all
   possible, as any information the Rosenbergs provided could serve as a
   control to check the accuracy of other intelligence.

   David Greenglass was spared execution in exchange for his testimony.
   More importantly, his wife, who according to the Venona decrypts was
   given a code name, was never even indicted. He spent 10 years in prison
   and was released in 1960, and has lived under an assumed name since his
   release. Decades later, in late 2001, Greenglass recanted and claimed
   that he had committed perjury when he testified about the typing
   activity of his sister Ethel. Greenglass said he chose to falsely
   testify against his sister in order to protect his wife and children.

Controversy

   The Rosenberg case has always been a controversial issue, with opinion
   dividing along ideological lines. There are a number of points of
   contention which still hold, even after the VENONA revelations.
     * Ethel Rosenberg’s Involvement: While the preponderance of evidence
       indicates that Julius was involved in Soviet espionage, the record
       is unclear for Ethel. The VENONA transcripts are ambiguous as to
       Ethel's involvement, and her brother, David Greenglass, a key
       prosecution witness, later told his biographer Sam Roberts that he
       had perjured himself in order to lessen his own sentence and to
       help his wife avoid jail time.
     * The Trial: There are many critics who have alleged that the
       political climate of the time, and the seemingly a priori belief by
       Judge Kaufman of the pair's guilt, his agreement to impose the
       death penalty before the trial had even begun, his willingness to
       permit a cross-examination of Ethel Rosenberg which destroyed her
       credibility by suggesting that there is a contradiction between
       asserting the Fifth Amendment before a Grand Jury and asserting
       one's innocence at a trial, would have made it impossible for the
       Rosenbergs to have had a fair trial by an impartial jury. The
       Rosenberg lawyer, Emanuel Bloch, also made a number of massive
       legal blunders (such as moving to impound exhibit 8 a Greenglass
       sketch purporting to show a cross section of the implosion-type
       atom bomb, thereby in effect acquiescing in the prosecution's
       charge that the sketch was in fact the "secret of the atom bomb"
       and also not cross-examining Harry Gold, who in later trials was
       found to be highly unreliable) suggesting either his incompetence
       or inability to cope with such a high-profile trial. Also,
       prosecutor Roy Cohn influenced the choice of Kaufman as judge.
     * The Sentence: The imposition of the death sentence upon the
       Rosenbergs has been the most controversial aspect of the case, as
       they were sentenced far more harshly than any other "atomic spies".
       Klaus Fuchs, who spied for many more years than the Rosenbergs,
       provided far more sensitive nuclear information to the Soviet
       Union, and was caught, confessed, tried, convicted, and sentenced
       in the United Kingdom, received 14 years in jail, which was the
       maximum penalty in that nation for passing military secrets to
       friendly nations. In 1950 the Rosenbergs' conspiracy charge was
       prosecuted in the United States in the context of the Cold War and
       the concurrent Korean War, with Judge Kaufman placing culpability
       on the couple for the Korean War. It is not clear that the
       prosecution proved that the Rosenbergs' activities had caused the
       Korean War, even if they had given the Soviet Union the secret of
       the atomic bomb.

The Rosenbergs' children

   The Rosenbergs' two sons, Robert and Michael, were orphaned by the
   execution, and no relatives dared adopt them for fear of ostracism or
   worse. They were finally adopted by the songwriter Abel Meeropol and
   his wife Anne. Abel Meeropol (under the pen name of Lewis Allan) wrote
   the classic anti-lynching anthem " Strange Fruit," made famous by
   singer Billie Holiday. He also co-wrote (with Earl Robinson) "The House
   I Live In", made famous in a short film starring Frank Sinatra to
   promote the war effort under a theme of tolerance for all types of
   Americans. (This song has a line referring to "My neighbors white and
   black" which was omitted from the film and Frank Sinatra's recorded
   versions. In the film all the characters, even the members of Sinatra's
   band are white.) Robert and Michael co-wrote a book about the
   experience, We are Your Sons: The Legacy of Ethel and Julius Rosenberg
   (1975), and Robert wrote another book in 2004, An Execution in the
   Family: One Son's Journey. In 1990, Robert founded the Rosenberg Fund
   for Children, a non-profit foundation which provides support for
   children whose parents are Leftist activists involved in court cases.

   Michael's daughter, Ivy Meeropol, directed a 2004 documentary about her
   grandparents, Heir to an Execution, which was featured at the Sundance
   Film Festival.

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