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Katana

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Military History and War

   Diagram showing the parts of a katana
   Enlarge
   Diagram showing the parts of a katana

   Katana (刀) is the word for " sword" in the Japanese language. It is
   also used specifically for a type of Japanese backsword or longsword
   (大刀 daitō) in use after the 1400s: a curved, single-edged sword
   traditionally used by the samurai. Pronounced [kah-tah-nah] in the
   kun'yomi (Japanese reading) of the kanji 刀, the word has been adopted
   as a loan word by the English language; as Japanese does not have
   separate plural and singular forms, both "katanas" and "katana" are
   considered acceptable plural forms in English.

   The katana was typically paired with the wakizashi or shōtō, a
   similarly made but shorter sword, both worn by the members of the
   warrior class. It could also be worn with the tantō, an even smaller
   similarly shaped blade. The two weapons together were called the
   daishō, and represented the social power and personal honour of the
   samurai. The long blade was used for open combat, while the shorter
   blade was considered a side arm, more suited for stabbing, close
   quarters combat, and seppuku, a form of ritual suicide.

   The katana was primarily used for cutting, and intended for use with a
   two-handed grip. It is traditionally worn edge up. While the practical
   arts for using the sword for its original purpose are now obsolete,
   kenjutsu and iaijutsu have turned into modern martial arts. The art of
   drawing the katana and attacking one's enemies is iaidō.

   Authentic Japanese swords are fairly uncommon today, although genuine
   antiques can be acquired at significant expense. Modern katana and
   wakizashi are only made by the few licenced practitioners that still
   practice making these crafted weapons today, and even the "type 98
   katanas" of World War II are rare.

History of the Japanese sword

Early history

   One of the oldest known Japanese forms of sword dates from the Kofun
   era (3rd and 4th centuries). The style, called Kashima no Tachi
   (鹿島の太刀), was created at the Kashima Shrine (in Ibaraki Prefecture).
   Before 987, examples of Japanese swords are straight chokutō or jōkotō
   and others with unusual shapes. In the Heian Period (8th to 11th
   centuries) sword-making developed through techniques brought from
   Siberia and Hokkaidō, territory of the Ainu people. The Ainu used
   Warabite-tō(蕨手刀) swords and these influenced the katana. According to
   legend, the Japanese sword was invented by a smith named Amakuni in 700
   AD, along with the folded steel process. In reality the folded steel
   process and single edge swords had been brought over from China through
   trade. Between 987 – 1597, swords are kotō: these are considered the
   pinnacle of Japanese swordcraft. Early models had uneven curves with
   the deepest part of the curve at the hilt. As eras changed the centre
   of the curve tended to move up the blade.

   By the twelfth century, civil war erupted, and the vast need for swords
   together with the ferocity of the fighting caused the highly artistic
   techniques of the Kamakura period (known as the Golden Age of
   Swordmaking) to be abandoned in favour of more utilitarian and
   disposable weapons. The export of katana reached its height during
   Muromachi period, when at least 200,000 katana were shipped to the Ming
   dynasty in official trade in an attempt to soak up the production of
   Japanese weapons and make it harder for pirates in the area to arm. The
   craft decayed as time progressed and firearms were introduced as a
   decisive force on the battlefield.

   The Mongol invasions of Japan in the thirteenth century spurred further
   evolution of the Japanese Sword. Often forced to abandon traditional
   mounted archery for hand-to-hand combat, many samurai found that their
   swords were too delicate and prone to damage when used against the
   thick leather armor of the invaders. In response, Japanese swordsmiths
   started to adopt thinner and simpler temper lines. Certain Japanese
   swordsmiths of this period began to make blades with thicker backs and
   bigger points as a response to the Mongol threat.

New swords

   In times of peace, swordsmiths returned to the making of refined and
   artistic blades, and the beginning of the Momoyama period saw the
   return of high quality creations. As the techniques of the ancient
   smiths had been lost during the previous period of war, these swords
   were called shintō, literally "new swords." These are considered
   inferior to most kotō, and generally coincide with a degradation in
   manufacturing skills. As the Edo period progressed, blade quality
   declined, though ornamentation was refined. The addition of engravings
   known as horimono was originally for religious reasons, and these were
   simple and tasteful. In the more complex work found on many shintō,
   form no longer strictly followed function.

   Under the isolationist Tokugawa Shogunate, swordmaking declined along
   with the use of firearms. The master swordsmith Munetsugu published
   opinions that the arts and techniques of the shinto swords were
   inferior to the kotō blades, and that research should be made by all
   swordsmiths to rediscover the lost techniques. Munetsugu travelled the
   land teaching what he knew to all who would listen, and swordsmiths
   rallied to his cause and ushered in a second renaissance in Japanese
   sword smithing. With the discarding of the shintō style, and the
   re-introduction of old and rediscovered techniques, swords made in the
   kotō style between 1761 – 1876 are shinshintō, "new revival swords" or
   literally 'new-new swords.' These are considered superior to most
   shintō, but worse than true kotō.

   The arrival of Matthew Perry in 1853 and the subsequent Convention of
   Kanagawa forcibly reintroduced Japan to the outside world; the rapid
   modernization of the Meiji Restoration soon followed. The Haitorei
   edict in 1876 all but banned carrying swords and guns on streets.
   Overnight, the market for swords died, many swordsmiths were left
   without a trade to pursue, and valuable skills were lost. Katana
   remained in use in some occupations such as the police force. At the
   same time, kendo was incorporated into police training so that police
   officers would have at the training necessary to properly use one.
   "Type 95" Non Commissioned Officer's sword of the Second World War;
   made to resemble a Commissioned Officer's shin guntō, they were made of
   standard machine steel, with an embossed and painted metal handle
   designed to look like a traditional tsuka.
   Enlarge
   "Type 95" Non Commissioned Officer's sword of the Second World War;
   made to resemble a Commissioned Officer's shin guntō, they were made of
   standard machine steel, with an embossed and painted metal handle
   designed to look like a traditional tsuka.

   In time, the need to arm soldiers with swords was perceived again and
   over the decades at the beginning of the 20th century swordsmiths again
   found work. These swords, derisively called gunto, were often oil
   tempered or simply stamped out of steel and given a serial number
   rather than a chiseled signature. These often look like Western cavalry
   sabers rather than katana, although most are just like katana, with
   many mass-produced and in general slightly shorter than blades of the
   shintō and shinshintō periods.

   Military swords hand made in the traditional way are often termed as
   gendaitō. The craft of making swords was kept alive through the efforts
   of a few individuals, notably Gassan Sadakazu and Gassan Sadakatsu who
   were employed as Imperial artisans. These smiths produced fine works
   that stand with the best of the older blades for the Emperor and other
   high ranking officials. The students of Gassan Sadakatsu went on to be
   designated Intangible Cultural Assets, "Living National Treasures," as
   they embodied knowledge that was considered to be fundamentally
   important to the Japanese identity. In 1934 the Japanese government
   issued a military specification for the shin gunto (new army sword),
   the first version of which was the Type 94 Katana, and many machine-
   and handcrafted swords used in World War II conformed to this and later
   shin gunto specifications.

Recent history and modern use

   Under the United States occupation at the end of World War II all armed
   forces in Occupied Japan were disbanded and production of katana with
   edges was banned except under police or government permit. The ban was
   overturned through a personal appeal by Dr. Homma Junji. During a
   meeting with General Douglas MacArthur, Dr. Homma produced blades from
   the various periods of Japanese history and MacArthur was able to
   identify very quickly what blades held artistic merit and which could
   be considered purely weapons. As a result of this meeting, the ban was
   amended so that guntō weapons would be destroyed while swords of
   artistic merit could be owned and preserved. Even so, many katana were
   sold to American soldiers at a bargain price; as of 1958 there were
   more Japanese swords in America than in Japan. The vast majority of
   these 1,000,000 or more swords were guntō, but there were still a
   sizable number of older swords.

   Swordsmiths had been increasingly turning to producing civilian goods
   after the Edo period but this disarmament and subsequent regulations
   almost put an end to the production of katana. A few smiths did
   continue their trade, and Dr. Homma went on to be a founding figure of
   the Nihon Bijitsu Hozon Token Kai, the Society for the Preservation of
   Art Swords, who made it their mission to preserve the old techniques
   and blades. With the efforts of other like-minded individuals, the
   katana avoided disappearing and many swordsmiths have continued the
   work begun by Munetsugu, re-discovering old swordmaking techniques in
   the process.

   Modern katana manufactured according to traditional methods are usually
   known as shinsakutō (newly made swords). Alternately, they can be
   termed shinken when they are designed for combat as opposed to iaito
   training swords. Some replica katana have been used in modern-day armed
   robberies.

Classification of Japanese swords

   Several katana and wakizashi blades, illustrating the variations in
   length and curvature. The nakago are well visible.
   Enlarge
   Several katana and wakizashi blades, illustrating the variations in
   length and curvature. The nakago are well visible.

   What generally differentiates the different swords is their length.
   Japanese swords are measured in units of shaku, a shaku being around
   30cm or one foot). A blade shorter than 1 shaku is considered a tantō
   (knife). A blade longer than 1 shaku but less than 2 is considered a
   shōtō (short sword). The wakizashi and kodachi are in this category.

   A blade longer than 2 shaku is considered a daitō, or long sword.
   Before 1500 most swords were worn suspended from cords on a belt,
   blade-down. This style is called jindachi-zukuri, and daitō worn in
   this fashion are called tachi (average blade length of 75 cm). From
   1500 – 1867, almost all swords were worn through an obi, paired with a
   smaller blade. Both blades were blade-up. This style is called
   buke-zukuri, and all daitō worn in this fashion are katana, averaging
   65 cm in blade length.

   A chiisakatana is simply a shorter katana. It is longer than the
   wakizashi, lying between one and two shaku in length. Chiisakatana were
   not common weapons since usually a katana was made for a taller person
   or a wakizashi for a shorter person. The most common reference to a
   chiisakatana is a shorter katana that does not have a companion blade.
   They were most commonly made in the buke-zukuri mounting.

   Abnormally long blades (longer than 3 shaku), usually carried across
   the back, are called ōdachi or nodachi. The word ōdachi is also
   sometimes used as a synonym for katana.

   Since 1867, restrictions and/or the deconstruction of the samurai class
   meant that most blades have been worn jindachi-zukuri style, like
   Western navy officers. Recently (since 1953) there has been a
   resurgence in the buke-zukuri style, permitted only for demonstration
   purposes. Swords designed specifically to be tachi are generally kotō
   rather than shintō, so they are generally better manufactured and more
   elaborately decorated. However, these are still katana if worn in
   modern buke-zukuri style. The signature almost always appears on the
   side facing away from the body when the blade is worn, so it is
   possible to discern the smith's intention for the blade in this manner.

   Japanese swords can be traced back to one of several provinces, each of
   which had its own school, traditions and 'trademarks' - e.g., the
   swords from Mino province were "from the start famous for their
   sharpness". These traditions and provinces are as follows:
     * Sōshū School
     * Yamato School
     * Bizen School
     * Yamashiro School
     * Mino School (e.g. kanenobu)
     * Wakimono School

Manufacturing

   Blacksmith Munechika (end of the 10th century), helped by a fox spirit,
   forging the blade ko-kitsune-maru ("Little fox"). The kami is
   represented by a woman surrounded by foxes. Engraving by Ogata Gekko
   (1859-1920), 1873.
   Enlarge
   Blacksmith Munechika (end of the 10th century), helped by a fox spirit,
   forging the blade ko-kitsune-maru ("Little fox"). The kami is
   represented by a woman surrounded by foxes. Engraving by Ogata Gekko
   (1859-1920), 1873.

   Katana and wakizashi were often forged with different profiles,
   different blade thicknesses, and varying amounts of grind. Wakizashi
   were not simply scaled-down katana; they were often forged in
   hira-zukuri or other such forms which were very rare on katana.

   The daishō was not always forged together. If a samurai was able to
   afford a daishō, it was often composed of whichever two swords could be
   conveniently acquired, sometimes by different smiths and in different
   styles. Even when a daishō contained a pair of blades by the same
   smith, they were not always forged as a pair or mounted as one. Daishō
   made as a pair, mounted as a pair, and owned/worn as a pair, are
   therefore uncommon and considered highly valuable, especially if they
   still retain their original mountings (as opposed to later mountings,
   even if the later mounts are made as a pair).

Forging

   Engraving of the Edo era depicting forge scenes.
   Enlarge
   Engraving of the Edo era depicting forge scenes.

   The forging of a Japanese blade typically took hours or days, and was
   considered a sacred art. As with many complex endeavors, rather than a
   single craftsman, several artists were involved. There was a smith to
   forge the rough shape, often a second smith (apprentice) to fold the
   metal, a specialist polisher, and even a specialist for the edge
   itself. Often, there were sheath, hilt, and tsuba specialists as well.

   The most famous part of the manufacturing process was the folding of
   the steel. Japanese swords and other edged weapons are manufactured by
   the Chinese method of repeatedly heating, folding and hammering the
   metal. This practice became popular due to the use of highly impure
   metals, stemming from the low temperature yielded in the smelting at
   that time and place. The folding did several things:
     * It eliminated any bubbles in the metal.
     * It homogenized the metal, spreading the elements (such as carbon)
       evenly throughout - increasing the effective strength by decreasing
       the number of potential weak points.
     * It burned off many impurities, helping to overcome the poor quality
       of the raw Japanese steel.
     * It created layers, by continuously decarburizing the surface and
       bringing it into the blade's interior, which gives the swords their
       grain (for comparison see pattern welding); however, the belief
       that the layered structure provides enhanced mechanical properties
       of the steel is false, as layers act as weld points which can only
       serve to weaken the integrity of the blade.

   Contrary to popular belief, continued folding will not create a
   "super-strong" blade; once impurities are burnt off and the carbon
   content homogenized, further folding offers little benefit and will
   gradually burn out the carbon, leading eventually to a softer steel
   less able to hold an edge. More than about a dozen folds are uncommon
   and swords never have more than two dozen folds. A blade folded 12
   times will have more than 4,000 'layers' underneath the initial blade
   to begin with. Even before this point, more layers does not equal a
   better sword; an even and clean composition is obtained early in the
   folding process, and control of carbon content has a much greater
   effect on the blade's functionality. Thus, the best results were
   usually obtained at 8-10 folds.

   One of the core philosophies of the Japanese sword is that it has a
   single edge. This means that the rear of the sword can be used to
   reinforce the edge, and the Japanese took full advantage of this. When
   finished, the steel is not quenched or tempered in the conventional
   European fashion. Steel’s exact flex and strength vary dramatically
   with heat variation. If steel cools quickly, from a hot temperature, it
   becomes martensite, which is very hard but brittle. Slower, from a
   lower temperature, and it becomes pearlite, which has significantly
   more flex but does not hold an edge. To control the cooling, the sword
   is heated and painted with layers of sticky clay. A thin layer on the
   edge of the sword ensures quick cooling for a hard edge, with a thicker
   layer of mud on the rest of the blade causing slower cooling and
   softer, more flexible steel to give the blade the required flex. When
   the application is finished, the sword is quenched and hardens
   correctly. This process also makes the edge of the blade contract less
   than the back when cooling down, something that aids the smith in
   establishing the curvature of the blade.

Decoration

   Almost all blades are decorated, although not all blades are decorated
   on the visible part of the blade. Once the blade is cool, and the mud
   is scraped off, the blade has designs and grooves cut into it. One of
   the most important markings on the sword is performed here: the file
   markings. These are cut into the tang, or the hilt-section of the
   blade, where they will be covered by a hilt later. The tang is never
   supposed to be cleaned: doing this can cut the value of the sword in
   half or more. The purpose is to show how well the blade steel ages.

   Some other marks on the blade are aesthetic: signatures and dedications
   written in kanji and engravings depicting gods, dragons, or other
   acceptable beings, called horimono. Some are more practical. The
   presence of a so-called "blood groove" or fuller does not in actuality
   allow blood to flow more freely from cuts made with the sword. It leads
   to no demonstrable difference in ease withdrawing a blade nor reduce
   the sucking sound that many people believe was the reason for including
   such a feature in commando knives in World War II. The grooves are
   analogous in structure to an I beam, lessening the weight of the sword
   yet keeping structural integrity and strength. Furthermore the grooves
   (always done on both sides of the blade) make a whistling sound when
   the sword is swung (the tachikaze). If the swordsman hears one whistle
   when swinging a grooved katana then that means that just one groove is
   making the whistle. Two whistles means that both the edge of the blade
   and a groove are making a whistle, and three whistles together (the
   blade edge and both grooves) would tell the swordsman that his blade is
   perfectly angled with the direction of the cut.

   In Japanese, the scabbard for a katana is referred to as a saya, and
   the handguard piece, often intricately designed as an individual work
   of art — especially in later years of the Edo period — was called the
   tsuba. Other aspects of the mountings (koshirae), such as the menuki
   (decorative grip swells), habaki (blade collar and scabbard wedge),
   fuchi and kashira (handle collar and cap), kozuka (small utility knife
   handle), kogai (decorative skewer-like implement), saya lacquer, and
   tsuka-ito (professional handle wrap, also named emaki), received
   similar levels of artistry.

Use

   The tachi became the primary weapon on the battlefield during Kamakura
   period, used by cavalry mounted samurai. The sword was mostly
   considered as a secondary weapon until then, used in the battlefield
   only after the bow and spear were no longer feasible. During the Edo
   period samurai went about on foot unarmored, and with much less combat
   being fought on horseback in open battlefields the need for an
   effective close quarter weapon resulted in samurai being armed with
   daisho.

   Testing of swords, called tameshigiri, was practiced on a variety of
   materials to test the sword's sharpness and practice cutting technique.
   This included prisoners. Kenjutsu is the use of the Japanese sword in
   combat. The katana was primarily a cutting weapon, or more
   specifically, a slicing one. However, the katana's moderate curve
   allows for effective thrusting as well. The hilt of the katana was
   usually held with two hands, though a fair amount of one-handed
   techniques exist. The placement of the right hand was dictated by both
   the length of the tsuka and the length of the wielder's arm.

   For cutting, there was a specific technique called 'ten uchi.' Ten uchi
   refers to an organized motion made by arms and wrist, during a
   descending strike. As the sword is swung downwards, the elbow joint
   drastically extends at the last instant, popping the sword into place.
   This motion causes the swordsman's grip to twist slightly and if done
   correctly, is said to feel like wringing a towel. This motion itself
   caused the katana's blade to impact its target with sharp force, and is
   used to break initial resistance. From there, fluidly continuing along
   the motion wrought by 'ten uchi,' the arms would follow through with
   the stroke, dragging the sword through its target. Because the katana
   slices rather than chops, it is this 'dragging' which allows it to do
   maximum damage, and is thusly incorporated into the cutting technique.
   At full speed, the swing will appear to be full stroke, the katana
   passing through the targeted object. The segments of the swing are
   hardly visible, if at all. Assuming that the target is, for example, a
   human torso -- ten uchi will break the initial resistance supplied by
   shoulder muscles and the clavical. The follow through would continue
   the slicing motion, through whatever else it would encounter, until the
   blade inherently exited the body, due a combination of the motion and
   its curved shape.

   Nearly all styles of kenjutsu share the same five basic guard stances.
   They are as follows; chudan no kamae (middle guard), jodan no kamae
   (high guard), gedan no kamae (low guard) hasso (side guard), and waki
   no gamae (rear guard).

   The katana's razor-edge was so hard that upon hitting an equally hard
   or harder object, such as another sword's edge, chipping became a
   definite risk. As such, blocking an oncoming blow blade-to-blade was
   generally avoided. In fact, evasive body maneuvers were preferred over
   blade contact by most, but, if such was not done, the side or the back
   of the blade was used for defense in many styles, rather than the
   precious edge. A popular method for defeating descending slashes was to
   simply beat the sword aside. In some instances, an umbrella block —
   positioning the blade overhead, diagonally (point towards the ground,
   pommel towards the sky) - would create an effective shield against a
   descending strike. If the angle of the block was drastic enough, the
   curve of the katana's spine would cause the attacker's blade to slide
   along its counter and off to the side.

Comparisons with swords of other cultures

   The Japanese sword has been praised widely for its sharpness and effect
   on the battlefield, but its reputation as a superior weapon has led to
   the exaggeration of its actual capabilities in popular culture.

   Traditional Japanese steel is called tamahagane, and as it is never
   fully melted during production it is relatively heterogeneous but more
   labor-intensive to work than European steel. Weapons such as swords
   from Toledo, Spain could be produced in large quantities at a low cost
   with a moderate sacrifice in quality because of the greater
   availability of iron in Europe. Because Japan was an iron-poor society,
   making a sword was an inherently expensive undertaking, and so the
   majority of swords made were of high quality.

   The differences between the katana and other swords are due less to the
   limitations of their makers than to the requirements of their use.
   Katana are capable of damaging Japanese armor to varying degrees: Older
   Koto era swords were designed when armor was prevalent and were
   generally thicker and more curved; consequently they had relatively
   good armor penetration, although weapons such as the yari were favored
   for armored opponents because sword attacks sometimes did not penetrate
   deeply enough to be fatal. As sword making moved onto the Shinto period
   the blades tended to become thinner and slightly less curved for use
   against unarmored opponents. It is worth noting that European swords of
   a similar length and weight to the katana were virtually useless
   against European plate armour and chainmail. In European swordsmanship
   the correct technique against mail was to thrust through it, and
   against plate, to take the sword by the blade in the left hand, and
   thrust at the gaps in the armor, often after grappling the opponent to
   an unfavourable position. See Fiore dei Liberi's Flos Duellatorum. A
   similar technique exists in many iaido and kenjutsu ryu-ha.

   Many sword types from the very beginning of the history of the sword,
   through the medieval period and the renaissance to the 20th century,
   were designed for the same combat modes as Japanese ones, fighting
   against lightly-armored or unarmored men on foot. Styles that relied on
   a single longsword for both offense and defense were well known outside
   of Japan as well, as documented in numerous fencing treatises such as
   Joachim Meyer's Fechtbuch, and disparities in weight have been greatly
   exaggerated; both katanas and other longswords weighed between 1.0 and
   1.5 kg (2-3 pounds).

   The majority of the swords of other cultures were of a moderate
   hardness throughout the blade as opposed to the variable hardness of
   the katana. A harder edge generally stays sharp longer and will cut a
   harder target, but is more prone to chipping, while a softer edge loses
   its sharpness and becomes gouged more easily, but is more resistant to
   fractures.

Gallery

   Handle of a katana of the 19th century given to an ambassador.

   Nakago of a wakizashi blade.

   Kissaki of a tachi blade, Bizen school, signed Kuni Osafune Yoshigake;
   Nambokucho era (14th century).

   The habaki which locks the blade is visible just under the tsuba
   (guard).

   An Edo era wakizashi. The tsukamaki (handle lacing) is off, showing the
   shark skin. Note the decoration of the saya.

   Elaborated tsuba of the Edo era.

   Wooden scabbard, shirasaya, used to protect the blade when not worn for
   some time.

   Retrieved from " http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katana"
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   with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details
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