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Kerala

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Geography of Asia

   Kerala
   Map of India with the location of Kerala highlighted.
   Capital
    -  Coordinates         Thiruvananthapuram
                            -  8.47° N 76.95° E
   Largest city            Thiruvananthapuram
   Largest metro           Kochi UA
   Population (2001)
    -  Density             31,838,619 ( 12th)
                            - 819/km²
   Area
    -  Districts           38,863 km² ( 21st)
                            -  14
   Time zone               IST ( UTC+5:30)
   Establishment
    -  Governor
    -  Chief Minister
    -  Legislature (seats) November 1, 1956
                            -  R. L. Bhatia
                            -  V.S. Achuthanandan
                            -  Unicameral (141)
   Official language(s)    Malayalam
   Abbreviation (ISO)      IN-KL
   Website: www.kerala.gov.in
   Seal of Kerala

   Kerala ( ['keːɹəˌɭɐ] ; — Kēraḷaṁ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of
   southwestern India. To its east and northeast, Kerala borders Tamil
   Nadu and Karnataka; to its west and south lie the Indian Ocean islands
   of Lakshadweep and the Maldives, respectively. Kerala envelops Mahé, a
   coastal exclave of Pondicherry. Kerala is one of four states that
   compose the linguistic-cultural region known as South India.

   First settled in the 10th century BCE by speakers of Proto-South
   Dravidian, Kerala was influenced by the Mauryan Empire. Later, the
   Cheran kingdom and feudal Namboothiri Brahminical city-states became
   major powers in the region. Early contact with overseas lands
   culminated in struggles between colonial and native powers. Finally,
   the States Reorganisation Act of November 1, 1956 elevated Kerala to
   statehood. Social reforms enacted in the late 19th century by Cochin
   and Travancore were expanded upon by post-Independence governments,
   making Kerala among the Third World's longest-lived, healthiest, most
   gender-equitable, and most literate regions. However, Kerala's rates of
   suicide, unemployment, and violent crime rank among India's highest.

   The etymology of Kerala is disputed. The prevailing theory states that
   it is an imperfect portmanteau that fuses kera ('coconut palm tree')
   and alam ('land' or 'location'). Natives of Kerala — Keralites — thus
   refer to their land as Keralam. Other theories have the name
   originating from the phrase chera alam (Land of the Chera). Kerala's
   tourist industry, among others, also use the phrase God's own country.

History

   According to legend, Parasurama (an avatar of Vishnu) caused the oceans
   to retreat, revealing Kerala. During Neolithic times, humans largely
   avoided Kerala's malarial rainforests and wetlands; thus, the first
   evidence of habitation — potsherds and dolmens — dates to the 10th
   century BCE. These were produced by speakers of a proto-Tamil language
   from northwestern India, suggesting that ancient Kerala and Tamil Nadu
   (part of Tamilakam) once shared a common language, ethnicity, and
   culture. By the early 14th century, Kerala had become a linguistically
   distinct region. The first major recorded kingdom, the Chera, ruled
   Kerala from Vanchi. Allied with the Pallavas, they warred against the
   Chola and Pandya kingdoms. A Keralite identity — distinct from the
   Tamils and associated with the second Chera empire and the development
   of Malayalam — evolved during the 8th–14th centuries. In written
   records, Kerala was first mentioned in the Sanskrit epic Aitareya
   Aranyaka. Later, figures such as Katyayana, Patanjali, Pliny the Elder,
   and the unknown author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea displayed
   familiarity with Kerala.
   Dolmens (megalithic tombs known locally as muniyaras) in Kerala's
   Marayoor region, erected by Neolithic tribesmen.
   Enlarge
   Dolmens ( megalithic tombs known locally as muniyaras) in Kerala's
   Marayoor region, erected by Neolithic tribesmen.

   The Chera kings' dependence on trade meant that merchants from West
   Asia established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala. Many —
   especially Jews and Christians — also escaped persecution, establishing
   the Nasrani Mappila and Muslim Mappila communities. According to
   several scholars, the Jews first arrived in Kerala in 573 BCE. The
   works of scholars and Eastern Christian writings states that Thomas the
   Apostle visited Muziris in Kerala in 52 CE to proselytize amongst
   Kerala's Jewish settlements. However, the first verifiable migration of
   Jewish-Nasrani families to Kerala is of the arrival of Knai Thoma in
   345 CE. Muslim merchants settled in Kerala by the 8th century CE. After
   Vasco Da Gama's arrival in 1498, the Portuguese sought to control the
   lucrative pepper trade by subduing Keralite communities and commerce.
   The 1868 m Agastya Malai (Agastyakoodam), part of the Western Ghats
   range of mountains, is located in eastern Thiruvananthapuram district.
   It is a pilgrimage centre named for the ancient rishi Agasthya; his
   devotees credit him with bringing Vedic Hinduism to South India,
   including Kerala.
   Enlarge
   The 1868 m Agastya Malai (Agastyakoodam), part of the Western Ghats
   range of mountains, is located in eastern Thiruvananthapuram district.
   It is a pilgrimage centre named for the ancient rishi Agasthya; his
   devotees credit him with bringing Vedic Hinduism to South India,
   including Kerala.

   Conflicts between the cities of Kozhikode (Calicut) and Kochi (Cochin)
   allowed the Dutch to oust the Portuguese. In turn, the Dutch were
   ousted at the 1741 Battle of Colachel by Marthanda Varma of Travancore
   (Thiruvathaamkoor). Meanwhile, Mysore’s Hyder Ali conquered northern
   Kerala, capturing Kozhikode in 1766. In the late 18th century, Tipu
   Sultan — Ali’s son and successor — launched campaigns against the
   expanding British East India Company; these resulted in two of the four
   Anglo-Mysore Wars. He ultimately ceded Malabar District and South
   Kanara to the Company in the 1790s. The Company then forged tributary
   alliances with Kochi (1791) and Travancore (1795). Meanwhile, Malabar
   and South Kanara became part of the Madras Presidency.
   One of the crosses reputedly erected by the Apostle Thomas in Kerala.
   Enlarge
   One of the crosses reputedly erected by the Apostle Thomas in Kerala.

   Kerala saw comparatively little defiance of the British Raj —
   nevertheless, several rebellions occurred, including the October 1946
   Punnapra-Vayalar revolt. Many actions — spurred by such leaders as
   Narayana Guru and Chattampi Swamikal — instead protested such
   conditions as untouchability; notable was the 1924 Vaikom Satyagraham.
   In 1936, Chitra Thirunal Bala Rama Varma of Travancore issued the
   Temple Entry Proclamation that opened Hindu temples to all castes;
   Cochin and Malabar soon did likewise.

   After India's independence in 1947, Travancore and Cochin were merged
   to form Travancore-Cochin on July 1, 1949. On January 1, 1950 (
   Republic Day), Travancore-Cochin was recognised as a state. Meanwhile,
   the Madras Presidency became Madras State in 1947. Finally, the
   Government of India's November 1, 1956 States Reorganisation Act
   inaugurated a new state — Kerala — incorporating Malabar District,
   Travancore-Cochin (excluding 4 southern Taluks which was merged with
   Tamil Nadu), and the taluk of Kasargod, South Kanara. A new Legislative
   Assembly was also created, for which elections were held in 1957. These
   resulted in a communist-led government — one of the world's earliest —
   headed by E.M.S. Namboodiripad. Subsequent social reforms introduced by
   Namboodiripad's administration — and continued by subsequent
   governments — favoured tenants and labourers. This facilitated, among
   other things, improvements in living standards, education, and life
   expectancies.

Geography

   The terrain around Munnar in Idukki is among the most mountainous in
   Kerala.
   Enlarge
   The terrain around Munnar in Idukki is among the most mountainous in
   Kerala.

   Kerala’s 38, 863 km² landmass (1.18% of India) is wedged between the
   Arabian Sea to the west and the Western Ghats — identified as one of
   the world's twenty-five biodiversity hotspots — to the east. Lying
   between north latitudes 8°18' and 12°48' and east longitudes 74°52' and
   72°22', Kerala is well within the humid equatorial tropics. Kerala’s
   coast runs for some 580 km, while the state itself varies between
   35–120 km in width. Geographically, Kerala can be divided into three
   climatically distinct regions: the eastern highlands (rugged and cool
   mountainous terrain), the central midlands (rolling hills), and the
   western lowlands (coastal plains). Located at the extreme southern tip
   of the Indian subcontinent, Kerala lies near the centre of the Indian
   tectonic plate; as such, most of the state (notwithstanding isolated
   regions) is subject to comparatively little seismic and volcanic
   activity. Geologically, pre-Cambrian and Pleistocene formations compose
   the bulk of Kerala’s terrain.
   The countryside of Wayanad.
   Enlarge
   The countryside of Wayanad.

   Eastern Kerala lies immediately west of the Western Ghats's rain
   shadow; it consists of high mountains, gorges and deep-cut valleys.
   Forty-one of Kerala’s west-flowing rivers — and three of its
   east-flowing ones — originate in this region. Here, the Western Ghats
   form a wall of mountains interrupted only near Palakkad, where a pass
   known as the Palakkad Gap breaks through to provide access to the rest
   of India. The Western Ghats rises on average to 1,500 m above sea
   level, while the highest peaks may reach to 2,500 m. Just west of the
   mountains lie the midland plains composing central Kerala; rolling
   hills and valleys dominate. Generally ranging between elevations of
   250–1,000 m, the eastern portions of the Nilgiri and Palni Hills
   include such formations as Agastyamalai and Anamalai.
   A fishing net (cheena vala) in the Backwaters region, Kollam district.
   Enlarge
   A fishing net ( cheena vala) in the Backwaters region, Kollam district.

   Kerala’s western coastal belt is relatively flat, and is criss-crossed
   by a network of interconnected brackish canals, lakes, estuaries, and
   rivers known as the Kerala Backwaters. Lake Vembanad — Kerala’s largest
   body of water — dominates the Backwaters; it lies between Alappuzha and
   Kochi and is more than 200 km² in area. Around 8% of India's waterways
   (measured by length) are found in Kerala. The most important of
   Kerala’s forty-four rivers include the Periyar (244 km), the
   Bharathapuzha (209 km), the Pamba (176 km), the Chaliyar (169 km), the
   Kadalundipuzha (130 km) and the Achankovil (128 km). Most of the
   remainder are small and entirely fed by monsoon rains. These conditions
   result in the nearly year-round water logging of such western regions
   as Kuttanad, 500 km² of which lies below sea level. As Kerala's rivers
   are small and lack deltas, they are more prone to environmental
   factors. Kerala's rivers face many problems, including summer droughts,
   the building of large dams, sand mining, and pollution.
                     Agroecology of Kerala
                       Kerala's agroecological zones.

              Kerala, shaded by biome, climate, and soil type.

                       Source: Jose 2002.

   With 120–140 rainy days per year, Kerala has a wet and maritime
   tropical climate influenced by the seasonal heavy rains of the
   Southwest Summer Monsoon. In eastern Kerala, a drier tropical wet and
   dry climate prevails. Kerala's rainfall averages 3,107 mm annually; the
   all-India average is 1,197 mm. Some of Kerala's drier lowland regions
   average only 1,250 mm; the mountains of eastern Idukki district receive
   more than 5,000 mm of orographic precipitation, the highest in the
   state. Kerala's rains mostly result from monsoons; more anomalous
   factors resulted in the red rains of 2001. Kerala . In summers, most of
   Kerala is prone to gale-force winds, storm surges, cyclone-related
   torrential downpours, occasional droughts, and rises in sea level and
   storm activity resulting from global warming. Kerala’s maximum daily
   temperature averages 36.7 °C; the minimum is 19.8 °C. Mean annual
   temperatures range from 25.0–27.5 °C in the coastal lowlands to
   20.0–22.5 °C in the highlands.

Flora and fauna

   A river in the Marayoor region of northwestern Idukki district.
   Enlarge
   A river in the Marayoor region of northwestern Idukki district.

   Kerala's notable biodiversity is concentrated in the east. Almost a
   fourth of India's plant species, some 10,000 plant species, are found
   in the state. Among the almost 4,000 flowering plant species (1,272 of
   which are endemic to Kerala and 159 threatened) are 900 species of
   highly-sought medicinal plants. Its 9,400 km² of forests include
   tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (lower and middle
   elevations — 3,470 km²), tropical moist and dry deciduous forests
   (mid-elevations — 4,100 km² and 100 km², respectively), and montane
   subtropical and temperate (shola) forests (highest elevations —
   100 km²). Altogether, 24% of Kerala is forested. Two of the world’s
   Ramsar Convention-listed wetlands — Lake Sasthamkotta and the
   Vembanad-Kol wetlands — are in Kerala, as well as 1455.4 km² of the
   vast Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Subjected to extensive clearing for
   cultivation in the 20th century, much of Kerala's forest cover is now
   protected from clearfelling. Kerala's fauna are notable for their
   diversity and high rates of endemism: 102 species of mammals (56 of
   which are endemic), 476 species of birds, 202 species of freshwater
   fishes, 169 species of reptiles (139 of them endemic), and 89 species
   of amphibians (86 endemic). These are threatened by extensive habitat
   destruction (including soil erosion, landslides, salinization, and
   resource extraction).
   A Grizzled Giant Squirrel (Protoxerus stangeri) in the Marayoor
   wilderness of northwestern Idukki district.
   Enlarge
   A Grizzled Giant Squirrel (Protoxerus stangeri) in the Marayoor
   wilderness of northwestern Idukki district.

   Eastern Kerala’s windward mountains shelter tropical moist forests and
   tropical dry forests, which are common in the Western Ghats. Here,
   sonokeling (binomial nomenclature: Dalbergia latifolia — Indian
   rosewood), anjili (Artocarpus hirsutus), mullumurikku ( Erythrina), and
   Cassia number among the more than 1,000 species of trees in Kerala.
   Other flora include bamboo, wild black pepper (Piper nigrum), wild
   cardamom, the calamus rattan palm (Calamus rotang — a type of climbing
   palm), and aromatic vetiver grass ( Vetiveria zizanioides). Living
   among them are such fauna as Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus), Bengal
   Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), Leopard (Panthera pardus), Nilgiri Tahr
   (Nilgiritragus hylocrius), Common Palm Civet (Paradoxurus
   hermaphroditus), and Grizzled Giant Squirrel (Ratufa macroura).
   Reptiles include the king cobra, viper, python, and crocodile. Kerala's
   birds are legion — Peafowl, the Great Hornbill (Buceros bicornis),
   Indian Grey Hornbill, Indian Cormorant, and Jungle Myna are several
   emblematic species. In lakes, wetlands, and waterways, fish such as
   kadu ( stinging catfish — Heteropneustes fossilis) and choottachi
   (orange chromide — Etroplus maculatus; valued as an aquarium specimen)
   can be found.

Subdivisions

   Pedestrians stroll along the Royal Musical Walkway of Kochi's Marine
   Drive.
   Enlarge
   Pedestrians stroll along the Royal Musical Walkway of Kochi's Marine
   Drive.

   Kerala's fourteen districts are distributed among Kerala's three
   historical regions: Travancore (southern Kerala), Kochi (central
   Kerala), and Malabar (northern Kerala).Travancore consists of Idukki,
   Alappuzha (Alleppey), Kottayam, Pathanamthitta, Kollam (Quilon), and
   Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum). Kochi includes Thrissur (Trichur) and
   Ernakulam districts. Malabar includes (from north to south) Kasargod,
   Kannur (Cannanore), Wayanad (Wynad), Kozhikode (Calicut), Malappuram,
   and Palakkad (Palghat).
   Districts of Kerala
   Kerala's districts, shaded by population density (inhabitants per km².

             Kerala's districts, shaded by inhabitants per km².

                     Source: Government of Kerala 2001.

   Mahe, a part of the Indian union territory of Pondicherry, is a coastal
   exclave surrounded by Kerala on all of its landward approaches.
   Thiruvananthapuram is the state capital and most populous city; Kochi
   (the most populous urban agglomeration) , Kozhikode, Palakkad, Kollam
   and Thrissur are the other major commercial centres of the state. The
   High Court of Kerala is situated at Ernakulam. Kerala's districts,
   which serve as the administrative regions used for taxation purposes,
   are further subdivided into a total of 63 taluks; these have fiscal and
   administrative powers over settlements within their borders, including
   maintenance of local land records.

Politics

   Like other Indian states and Commonwealth countries, Kerala is governed
   through a parliamentary system of representative democracy; universal
   suffrage is granted to residents. There are three branches of
   government. The legislature, or the legislative assembly, consists of
   elected members and special office bearers (the Speaker and Deputy
   Speaker) elected by assemblymen. Assembly meetings are presided over by
   the Speaker (or the Deputy Speaker if the Speaker is absent). The
   judiciary comprises the Kerala High Court (including a Chief Justice
   combined with 26 permanent and two additional (pro tempore) justices)
   and a system of lower courts. The executive authority — comprising the
   Governor of Kerala (the de jure head of state appointed by the
   President of India), the Chief Minister of Kerala (the de facto head of
   state: the Legislative Assembly's majority party leader is appointed to
   this position by the Governor), and the Council of Ministers (appointed
   by the Governor, with input from the Chief Minister). The Council of
   Ministers answers to the Legislative Assembly. Auxiliary authorities
   known as panchayats, for which local body elections are regularly held,
   govern local affairs.

   Kerala hosts two major political alliances: the United Democratic Front
   (UDF — led by the Indian National Congress) and the Left Democratic
   Front (LDF — led by the CPI(M)). At present, LDF is the ruling
   coalition and V.S. Achuthanandan of the CPI(M) is the Chief Minister.
   Kerala is among India’s few left-wing states. Compared with most other
   Indians, Keralites are keener participants in the political process.

   The Kerala state government's tax revenues (excluding the shares from
   Union tax pool) amounted to 111,248 million  INR in 2005, up from
   63,599 million in 2000. Its non-tax revenues (excluding the shares from
   Union tax pool) of the Government of Kerala as assessed by the Indian
   Finance Commissions reached 10,809 million INR in 2005, nearly double
   the 6,847 million INR revenues of 2000. However, Kerala's high ratio of
   taxation to gross state domestic product (GSDP) has not alleviated
   chronic budget deficits and unsustainable levels of government debt,
   impacting social services.

Economy

   Technopark Kerala, located in Trivandrum.
   Enlarge
   Technopark Kerala, located in Trivandrum.

   Since its incorporation as a state, Kerala's economy largely operated
   under welfare-based democratic socialist principles; nevertheless, the
   state is increasingly — along with the rest of India — liberalising its
   economy, thus moving to a more mixed economy with a greater role played
   by the free market and foreign direct investment. Kerala's nominal
   gross domestic product (as of 2004–2005) is an estimated
   89451.99 crore  INR, while recent GDP growth (9.2% in 2004–2005 and
   7.4% in fiscal year 2003–2004) has been robust compared to historical
   averages (2.3% annually in the 1980s and between 5.1% and 5.99% in the
   1990s). Nevertheless, relatively few major corporations and
   manufacturing plants choose to operate in Kerala; this is mitigated by
   remittances sent home by overseas Keralites, which contributes around
   20% of state GDP. Kerala's per capita GDP — 11,819  INR — is
   significantly higher than the all-India average, although it still lies
   far below the world average. Additionally, Kerala's Human Development
   Index and standard of living statistics are the nation's best. This
   apparent paradox — high human development and low economic development
   — is often dubbed the " Kerala phenomenon" or the " Kerala model" of
   development, and arises mainly from Kerala's strong service sector.
   Tea gardens in eastern Kerala.
   Enlarge
   Tea gardens in eastern Kerala.

   The service sector (including tourism, public administration, banking
   and finance, transportation, and communications — 63.8% of statewide
   GDP in 2002–2003) along with the agricultural and fishing industries
   (together 17.2% of GDP) dominate Kerala's economy; nearly half of
   Kerala's people are dependent on agriculture alone for income. Some 600
   varieties of rice (Kerala's most important staple food and cereal crop)
   are harvested from 310,521  ha (a decline from 588,340 ha in 1990) of
   paddy fields; 688,859  tonnes are produced per annum. Other key crops
   include coconut (899,198 ha), tea, coffee (23% of Indian production, or
   57,000 tonnes), rubber, cashews, and spices — including pepper,
   cardamom, vanilla, cinnamon, and nutmeg. Around 10.50 lakh
   (1.050 million) fishermen haul an annual catch of 6.68 lakh (668,000)
   tonnes (1999–2000 estimate); 222 fishing villages are strung along the
   590 km coast, while an additional 113 fishing villages are spread
   throughout the hinterland. Traditional industries manufacturing such
   items as coir, handlooms, and handicrafts employ around ten lakh (one
   million) people. Around 1.8 lakh (180,000) small-scale industries
   employ around 909,859 Keralites, while some 511 medium- and large-scale
   manufacturing firms are located in Kerala. Meanwhile, a small mining
   sector (0.3% of GDP) involves extraction of such materials as ilmenite
   (136,908.74 tonnes in 1999–2000), kaolin, bauxite, silica, quartz,
   rutile, zircon, and sillimanite. Home gardens and animal husbandry also
   provide work for hundreds of thousands of people. Other significant
   economic sectors are tourism, manufacturing, and business process
   outsourcing. Kerala's unemployment rate is variously estimated at 19.2%
   and 20.77%, although underemployment of those classified as "employed",
   low employability of many job-seeking youths, and a mere 13.5% female
   participation rate are significant problems. Estimates of the statewide
   poverty rate range from 12.71% to as high as 36%.

Transport

   Kerala has 145,704  km of roads (4.2% of India's total). This
   translates into about 4.62 km of road per thousand population, compared
   to an all-India average of 2.59 km. Virtually all of Kerala's villages
   are connected by road. Traffic in Kerala has been growing at a rate of
   10–11% every year, resulting in high traffic and pressure on the roads.
   Total road length in Kerala increased by 5% between 2003-2004. Kerala's
   road density is nearly four times the national average, reflecting the
   state's high population density. India's national highway network
   includes a Kerala-wide total of 1,524 km, which is 2.6% of the national
   total. There are eight designated national highways in the state.
   Upgrading and maintenance of 1,600 km of state highways and major
   district roads have been taken up by the Kerala State Transport Project
   (KSTP), which includes the GIS-based Road Information and Management
   Project (RIMS). Most of Kerala's west coast is accessible through two
   National Highways, NH 47 and NH 17.

Demographics

   Kerala's population (1951-2026)
        Kerala's population (including growth rate) from 1951–2026.

   Kerala's total population and growth rate from 1951–2001 (estimated)
                        and 2006–2026 (projected).

      Sources: Tharakan & Navaneetham 1999, p. 36, Government of Kerala
                                   2005b.

   The 3.18 crore (31.8 million) of Kerala’s compound population is
   predominantly of Malayali Dravidian ethnicity, while the rest is mostly
   made up of Indo-Aryan, Jewish, and Arab elements in both culture and
   ancestry (both of which are usually mixed). Kerala is also home to
   321,000 indigenous tribal Adivasis (1.10% of the populace), who are
   mostly concentrated in the eastern districts.. Malayalam is Kerala's
   official language; Tamil and various Adivasi languages are also spoken
   by ethnic minorities. Kerala is home to 3.44% of India's people, and —
   at 819 persons per km² — its land is three times as densely settled as
   the rest of India. However, Kerala's population growth rate is India's
   lowest; Indeed, Kerala's decadal growth (9.42% in 2001) is less than
   half the all-India average of 21.34%. Additionally, whereas Kerala's
   population more than doubled between 1951 and 1991 — adding 156 lakh
   (15.6 million) people to reach a total of 291 lakh (29.1 million)
   residents in 1991 — the population stood at less than 320 lakh (32
   million) by 2001. Kerala's people are most densely settled in the
   coastal region, leaving the eastern hills and mountains comparatively
   sparsely populated.
   Kochi's Lakeshore Hospital.
   Enlarge
   Kochi's Lakeshore Hospital.

   Women comprise 51.42% of the population, while Kerala's principal
   religions are Hinduism (56.1%), Islam (24.7%), and Christianity (19%).
   Remnants of a once substantial Cochin Jewish population — most of which
   made aliyah to Israel — also practice Judaism. In comparison with the
   rest of India, Kerala experiences relatively little sectarianism.
   Nevertheless, there have been signs of increasing influences from
   religious extremist organisations. In addition, Kerala has among the
   highest rates of criminality — including rates of rape and violent
   crime far above national averages — in India, ranking third among
   Indian states.

   Kerala's society is less patriarchical than the rest of the Third
   World. Many Keralites (some Hindus, and the Muslims of Malabar) follow
   a traditional matrilineal system known as marumakkathayam. However,
   Christians, Muslims, and some Hindu castes such as the Namboothiri and
   Ezhava follow makkathayam, a patrilineal system. Kerala's gender
   relations are among the most equitable in India and the Third World.
   However, this too is coming under threat, from such forces as
   patriarchy-enforced oppression of women (for example, 45% of Keralite
   women have experienced at least one incident of physical violence,
   while domestic violence against women is on the rise), globalisation,
   modernisation, and " Sanskritisation" (the subaltern poor's emulation
   of higher castes).
   A Keralite Malayali woman wearing set sari Enlarge
   A Keralite Malayali woman wearing set sari

   Kerala's human development indices — elimination of poverty,
   primary-level education, and healthcare — are among the best in India.
   For example, Kerala's literacy rate (91%) and life expectancy (73
   years) are now the highest in India. Meanwhile, Kerala's rural poverty
   rate fell from 69% (1970–1971) to 19% (1993–1994), while the overall
   (urban and rural) rate fell 36% during the 1970s and 1980s. These
   changes stem largely from efforts begun in the late 19th century by the
   kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore to boost social welfare. This focus
   was maintained by Kerala's post-independence government. However,
   Kerala's unemployment and suicide rates are high by Indian standards.
   Kerala's above-unity female-to-male ratio — 1.058 — also distinguishes
   it from the rest of India. The same is true of its sub-replacement
   fertility level and infant mortality rate (estimated at 12 to 14 deaths
   per 1,000 live births). However, Kerala's morbidity rate is higher than
   that of any other Indian state — 118 (rural Keralites) and 88 (urban)
   per 1,000 people; the corresponding all-India figures are 55 and 54 per
   1,000, respectively. Kerala's 13.3% prevalence of low birth weight is
   substantially higher than that of First World nations. Further,
   outbreaks of water-borne diseases — including diarrhoea, dysentery,
   hepatitis, and typhoid — among the more than 50% of Keralites who rely
   on some 30  lakh (3 million) water wells constitutes another problem, a
   situation only exacerbated by the widespread lack of sewerage.

   Kerala's healthcare system has garnered international acclaim, with
   UNICEF and the World Health Organization (WHO) designating Kerala the
   world's first "baby-friendly state" — for example, more than 95% of
   Keralite births are hospital-delivered. Aside from ayurveda (both elite
   and popular forms), siddha, and unani, many endangered and endemic
   modes of traditional medicine — including kalari, marmachikitsa, and
   vishavaidyam — are practiced. These propagate via gurukula
   discipleship, and comprise a fusion of both medicinal and supernatural
   treatments, and are partly responsible for drawing increasing numbers
   of medical tourists. A steadily aging population — 11.2% of Keralites
   are over age 60 — and low birthrate (18 per 1,000 — among the
   under-developed world's lowest) make Kerala (together with Cuba) one of
   the few regions of the Third World to have undergone the " demographic
   transition" characteristic of such developed nations as Canada, Japan,
   and Norway.

Culture & arts

   Guru Padma Shri Mani Madhava Chakyar performing Koodiyattam - the only
   surviving ancient Sanskrit theatre in India
   Enlarge
   Guru Padma Shri Mani Madhava Chakyar performing Koodiyattam - the only
   surviving ancient Sanskrit theatre in India

   Kerala's culture is mainly Dravidian in origin, deriving from a greater
   Tamil-heritage region known as Tamilakam. Later, Kerala's culture was
   elaborated upon through centuries of contact with neighboring and
   overseas cultures. Native performing arts include koodiyattom,
   kathakali – from katha ("story") and kali ("performance") – and its
   offshoot Kerala natanam, koothu (akin to stand-up comedy), mohiniaattam
   ("dance of the enchantress"), thullal, padayani, and theyyam. Other
   arts are more religion- and tribal-themed. These include chavittu
   nadakom, oppana (originally from Malabar), which combines dance,
   rhythmic hand clapping, and ishal vocalisations. However, many of these
   artforms largely play to tourists or at youth festivals, and are not as
   popular among most ordinary Keralites. These people look to more
   contemporary art and performance styles, including those employing
   mimicry and parody. Additionally, a substantial Malayalam film industry
   effectively competes against both Bollywood and Hollywood.

   Malayalam literature is ancient in origin, and includes such figures as
   the 14th-century Niranam poets (Madhava Panikkar, Sankara Panikkar and
   Rama Panikkar), whose works mark the dawn of both modern Malayalam
   language and indigenous Keralite poetry. The " triumvirate of poets"
   (Kavithrayam: Kumaran Asan, Vallathol Narayana Menon, and Ulloor S.
   Parameswara Iyer) are recognised for moving Keralite poetry away from
   archaic sophistry and metaphysics, and towards a more lyrical mode. In
   the second half of the 20th century, Jnanpith awardees like G Sankara
   Kurup, S. K. Pottakkat, and M. T. Vasudevan Nair have added to
   Malayalam literature. Later, such Keralite writers as O. V. Vijayan, M.
   Mukundan, and Booker Prize winner Arundhati Roy — whose 1996 semi-
   autobiographical bestseller The God of Small Things is set in the
   Kottayam town of Ayemenem — have gained international recognition.
   A mohiniaattam (Malayalam: മോഹിനിയാട്ടം — "dance of the enchantress")
   performer.
   Enlarge
   A mohiniaattam (Malayalam: മോഹിനിയാട്ടം — "dance of the enchantress")
   performer.

   Kerala's music also has ancient roots. Carnatic music dominates
   Keralite traditional music; this was the result of Swathi Thirunal Rama
   Varma's popularisation of the genre in the 19th century. Raga-based
   renditions known as sopanam accompany kathakali performances. Melam
   (including the paandi and panchari variants) is a more percussive style
   of music; it is performed at Kshetram-centered festivals using the
   chenda. Melam ensembles comprise up to 150 musicians, and performances
   may last up to four hours. Panchavadyam is a different form of
   percussion ensemble, in which up to 100 artists use five types of
   percussion instrument. Kerala has various styles of folk and tribal
   music. The popular music of Kerala — as in the rest of India — is
   dominated by the filmi music of Indian cinema. Kerala's visual arts
   range from traditional murals to the works of Raja Ravi Varma, the
   state's most renowned painter.
   Keralite elephants at the Thrissur Pooram.
   Enlarge
   Keralite elephants at the Thrissur Pooram.

   Kerala has its own Malayalam calendar, which is used to plan
   agricultural and religious activities. Kerala's cuisine is typically
   served as a sadhya on green banana leaves; such dishes as idli,
   payasam, pulisherry, puttucuddla, puzhukku, rasam, and sambar are
   typical. Keralites — both men and women alike — traditionally don
   flowing and unstitched garments. These include the mundu, a loose piece
   of cloth wrapped around men's waists. Women typically wear the sari, a
   long and elaborately wrapped banner of cloth, wearable in various
   styles.

   Several ancient ritualised arts are Keralite in origin; these include
   kalaripayattu ( kalari ("place", "threshing floor", or "battlefield")
   and payattu ("exercise" or "practice")). Among the world's oldest
   martial arts, oral tradition attributes kalaripayattu's emergence to
   Parasurama. Other ritual arts include theyyam and poorakkali. However,
   Keralites are increasingly turning to more modern activities like
   cricket, kabaddi, soccer, and badminton. Dozens of large stadiums —
   including Kochi's Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium and Thiruvananthapuram's
   Chandrashekaran Nair Stadium — attest to the mass appeal of such sports
   among Keralites. Television (especially "mega serials" and cartoons)
   and the Internet have impacted Keralite culture. Yet Keralites maintain
   high rates of newspaper & magazine subscriptions— 50% — spend an
   average of about seven hours a week reading novels and other books,
   host a sizeable "people's science" movement, and participate in such
   activities as writers' cooperatives.

Citations

    1. ^ ^a ^b ^c Venkitakrishnan & Kurien 2003, p. 26.
    2. ^ ^a ^b Government of Kerala 2005.
    3. ^ Government of Travancore 1906, pp. 210-212.
    4. ^ Pliny's Naturalis Historia, Book 6, Chapter 26
    5. ^ Silapadhigaaram, Manimekalai, P.T. Srinivasa Iyengar's "History
       of the Tamils: from the earliest times to 600 AD", Madras, 1929
    6. ^ The Indian Christians of St Thomas, Leslie Brown, page 171
    7. ^ De Beth Hillel, David (1832). Travels ( Madras publication).
    8. ^ Lord, James Henry (1977). The Jews in India and the Far East;
       Greenwood Press Reprint; ISBN 0-8371-2615-0.
    9. ^ Medlycott, A E. 1905 "India and the Apostle Thomas"; Gorgias
       Press LLC; ISBN 1-59333-180-0
   10. ^ Government of Kerala 2002.
   11. ^ ^a ^b Plunkett, Cannon & Harding 2001, p. 24.
   12. ^ Jose 1998.
   13. ^ Cheriyan 2004, pp. 22-23.
   14. ^ Cheriyan 2004, pp. 43-44.
   15. ^ ^a ^b Sreedharan 2004, p. 5.
   16. ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Government of Kerala 2005b.
   17. ^ United Nations Development Programme 2002
   18. ^ Inland Waterways Authority of India 2005.
   19. ^ About the Rivers of Kerala. Retrieved on 2006- 11-02.
   20. ^ Problems Faced by Rivers in Kerala. Retrieved on 2006- 11-02.
   21. ^ Chacko & Renuka 2002, p. 80.
   22. ^ Brenkert & Malone 2003, p. 46.
   23. ^ Brenkert & Malone 2003, p. 26.
   24. ^ Brenkert & Malone 2003, p. 52.
   25. ^ Brenkert & Malone 2003, p. 65.
   26. ^ Sreedharan 2004, p. 11.
   27. ^ ^a ^b Government of Kerala 2004f, p. 141.
   28. ^ ^a ^b ^c Sreedharan 2004, p. 12.
   29. ^ Jayarajan 2004, pp. 6-7.
   30. ^ Government of Kerala 2004f, pp. 142-145.
   31. ^ Sreedharan 2004, pp. 174-175.
   32. ^ Sreedharan 2004, p. 163.
   33. ^ Sreedharan 2004, p. 164-165.
   34. ^ "World Gazetteer:India - largest cities (per geographical
       entity")
   35. ^ "World Gazetteer: India - largest cities (per geographical
       entity")
   36. ^ Finance Commission (Ministry of Finance, Government of India)
   37. ^ Memoranda from States: Kerala
   38. ^ Press Trust of India 2006.
   39. ^ ^a ^b ^c Mohindra 2003, p. 8.
   40. ^ ^a ^b Government of Kerala 2004, p. 2.
   41. ^ ^a ^b Brenkert & Malone 2003, p. 49.
   42. ^ Hari & Kannan 2002.
   43. ^ Raman 2005.
   44. ^ ^a ^b ^c Varma 2005.
   45. ^ ^a ^b Tharamangalam 2005, p. 1.
   46. ^ ^a ^b Brenkert & Malone 2003, p. 48.
   47. ^ ^a ^b Government of Kerala 2004c, p. 24.
   48. ^ ^a ^b ^c Government of Kerala 2005c.
   49. ^ ^a ^b Balachandran 2004, p. 5.
   50. ^ Joy 2004, p. 13.
   51. ^ Joy 2004, pp. 6-7.
   52. ^ Rajan & Zachariah 2005, p. 4.
   53. ^ ^a ^b Government of Kerala 2004, p. 4.
   54. ^ Nair 2004, p. 5.
   55. ^ Nair 2004, p. 13.
   56. ^ Dhar 2006.
   57. ^ Government of Kerala 2006, p. 1.
   58. ^ Office of the Registrar General 2001b.
   59. ^ Kalathil 2004, p. 10.
   60. ^ Kalathil 2004, p. 12.
   61. ^ Office of the Registrar General 2001.
   62. ^ Government of Kerala 2004c, p. 26.
   63. ^ Government of Kerala 2004c, p. 27.
   64. ^ Office of the Registrar General 2004.
   65. ^ Ramakrishnan 2001.
   66. ^ Haviland 2003.
   67. ^ Venkitakrishnan & Kurien 2003, pp. 26-27.
   68. ^ ^a ^b McKibben 2006.
   69. ^ ^a ^b Lindberg 2004, pp. 18-19.
   70. ^ Government of Kerala 2002b.
   71. ^ Government of Kerala 2004r, p. 366.
   72. ^ Lindberg 2004, p. 1.
   73. ^ Sunny 2004, p. 10.
   74. ^ Sunny 2004, p. 14.
   75. ^ ^a ^b ^c United Nations Development Programme 2001, p. 1.
   76. ^ Mohindra 2003, pp. 8-9.
   77. ^ UNESCO 2003, p. 156.
   78. ^ Kutty 2000, p. 104.
   79. ^ Kutty 2000, p. 103.
   80. ^ ^a ^b Tharamangalam 2005, p. 2.
   81. ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Kutty 2004, p. 6.
   82. ^ ^a ^b Krishnaswami 2004, p. 5.
   83. ^ Roy 2004, pp. 5-6.
   84. ^ Roy 2004, p. 6.
   85. ^ ^a ^b Roy 2004, p. 7.
   86. ^ Unnikrishnan 2004, p. 13.
   87. ^ Unnikrishnan 2004, p. 17.
   88. ^ Unnikrishnan 2004, pp. 5-6.
   89. ^ Unnikrishnan 2004, p. 15.
   90. ^ Bhagyalekshmy 2004, pp. 6-7.
   91. ^ Bhagyalekshmy 2004d, p. 29.
   92. ^ Bhagyalekshmy 2004d, p. 32.
   93. ^ ^a ^b Ranjith 2004, p. 20.
   94. ^ Ranjith 2004, p. 21.


      Image:Example.of.complex.text.rendering.svg This page contains Indic
              text. Without rendering support, you may see irregular vowel
                              positioning and a lack of conjuncts. More...

   An interior view of the Knanaya Nasrani Valia Palli (St. Mary’s
   Church), located in Thazhathangadi, Kottayam district. It features an
   ornate Knanaya tabernacle veiled — as is customary in Jewish temples or
   synagogues — by a red curtain. (Exterior shot).
   Enlarge
   An interior view of the Knanaya Nasrani Valia Palli ( St. Mary’s
   Church), located in Thazhathangadi, Kottayam district. It features an
   ornate Knanaya tabernacle veiled — as is customary in Jewish temples or
   synagogues — by a red curtain. ( Exterior shot).
   Most larger Keralite Hindu temples have outer walls affixed with arrays
   of oil lamps, which devotees light as part of their evening prayers.
   Enlarge
   Most larger Keralite Hindu temples have outer walls affixed with arrays
   of oil lamps, which devotees light as part of their evening prayers.
   A boatman rows a traditional kettuvallam on Vembanad Lake.
   Enlarge
   A boatman rows a traditional kettuvallam on Vembanad Lake.
   Retrieved from " http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerala"
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   with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details
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   Documentation License. See also our Disclaimer.
