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La Grande Armée

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: General history

   La Grande Armée
   Active 1805–15
   Country France
   Size At its height in 1812, consisted of:
   • 300,000 Frenchmen, Belgians and Dutchmen
   • 95,000 Poles
   • 25,000 Italians
   • 24,000 Bavarians
   • 20,000 Saxons
   • 17,000 Westphalians
   • 20,000 Prussians
   • 35,000 Austrians
   • 15,000 Swiss
   • 3,500 Croatians
   Total: 554,500 men
   Patron Napoleon I of France
   Motto Valeur et Discipline
   (Bravery and Discipline)
   Colors Le Tricolore
   March La Victoire Est a Nous (Victory is ours/upon us),
   La Marseillaise
   Mascot French Imperial Eagle
   Battles/wars Ulm, Austerlitz, Jena-Auerstedt, Eylau, Friedland,
   Invasion of Russia 1812, Smolensk, Borodino, Berezina, Lützen, Dresden,
   Leipzig, Vauchamps, Arcis-sur-Aube.
   Commanders
   Notable
   commanders Napoleon I of France

   The name La Grande Armée (French for "the Big Army," "the Great Army,"
   or "the Grand Army") first entered the annals of history when, in 1805,
   Napoleon I renamed the army that he had assembled on the French coast
   of the English Channel for the proposed invasion of Britain and
   re-deployed it East to commence the Campaign of 1805 against Austria
   and Russia.

   Thereafter, the name was used for the principal French army deployed in
   the Campaigns of 1806- 07, 1812, and 1813- 14. In practice, however,
   the term "Grande Armée" is used in English to refer to all of the
   multinational forces gathered by Napoleon I in his campaigns of the
   early nineteenth century (see Napoleonic Wars).

   The first Grande Armée consisted of six corps under the command of
   Napoleon's marshals and senior generals. When Napoleon discovered that
   Russian and Austrian armies were preparing to invade France in late
   1805, the Grande Armée was hurriedly ordered across the Rhine into
   Southern Germany, leading to Napoleon's victories at Ulm and
   Austerlitz.

   The army grew in size as Napoleon's might spread across Europe. It
   reached its maximum size of 600,000 men at the start of the invasion of
   Russia against the Sixth Coalition in 1812. All contingents were
   commanded by French generals, except for a Polish and an Austrian
   corps. The huge multinational army marched slowly eastwards, with the
   Russians falling back before it. After the capture of Smolensk and
   victory in the Battle of Borodino, Napoleon and a large part of the
   Grande Armée reached Moscow on 14 September 1812. However, the army was
   already drastically reduced in numbers due to disease (principally
   typhus) and hunger caused by the Russian scorched earth strategy which
   left no forage for the French troops. The army spent a month in Moscow,
   but was ultimately forced to march back westwards. Assailed by cold,
   starvation and disease, and constantly harassed by Cossacks and Russian
   irregulars, the retreat utterly destroyed the Grande Armée as a
   fighting force. As many as 400,000 died in the adventure and only a few
   tens of thousands of ravaged troops returned.

   Napoleon led a new army to the Battle of Nations at Leipzig in 1813, in
   the furious defence of France in 1814, and in the Waterloo campaign in
   1815, but the Napoleonic French army would never regain the heights of
   the Grande Armée in June 1812.

Organization

   One of the most important factors in the Grande Armée's success was its
   superior and highly flexible organization. It was subdivided into
   several Corps (usually from five to seven), each numbering anywhere
   between 10,000 to 50,000, with the average size being around 20,000 to
   30,000 troops. These Corps d'Armée were self-contained, smaller armies
   of combined arms, consisting of elements from all the forces and
   support services discussed below. While capable of fully independent
   operations, the Corps usually worked in close concert together and kept
   within a day's marching distance of one another. A Corps, depending on
   its size and the importance of its mission, was commanded by a Marshal,
   or Général de division ( Major General).

   Napoleon placed great trust in his Corps commanders and usually allowed
   them a wide freedom of action, provided they acted within the outlines
   of his strategic objectives and worked together to accomplish them.
   When they failed to do this to his satisfaction, however, he would not
   hesitate to reprimand or relieve them and in many cases took personal
   command of their Corps himself. Corps were first formed in 1800, when
   General Moreau divided the Army Of The Rhine into 4 Corps. These were
   only temporary groupings, however, and it was not until 1804 that
   Napoleon made them permanent units. He would sometimes form the cavalry
   into separate Corps, so they would be able to move and mass more
   quickly without being slowed by the infantry.

   The main tactical units of the Corps were the Divisions, usually
   consisting of 4,000 to 6,000 infantry or cavalrymen. These in turn were
   made up of 2 or 3 Brigades of 2 Regiments apiece and supported by an
   Artillery Brigade of 3 or 4 Batteries, each with 4 field cannons and 2
   howitzers, making 18 to 24 guns in all. The Divisions were also
   permanent administrative and operational units, commanded by a General
   de Division ( Major General) and likewise capable of independent
   actions.

Forces of La Grande Armée

Imperial Guard

   France's Imperial Guard (Garde Impériale) was the elite military force
   of its time and grew out of the Garde des Consuls and Garde Consulaire.
   It was, quite literally, a Corps d'Armée itself with infantry, cavalry
   and artillery divisions. Napoleon wanted it also to be an example for
   the entire army to follow, and a force that, since it had fought with
   him over several campaigns, was completely loyal. Although the infantry
   was rarely committed in mass, the Guard's cavalry was often thrown into
   battle as the killing blow and its artillery used to pound enemies
   prior to assaults.

   From a single regiment in 1800, it was steadily expanded until it was
   the size of a field army.
   Banner of the Grenadiers à Pied.
   Banner of the Grenadiers à Pied.
     Size Of The Guard Over Time
   Year      Number Of Soldiers
   1800 3,000
   1804 8,000
   1805 12,000
   1810 56,000
   1812 112,000
   1813 85,000 (mostly Young Guards)
   1815 28,000

Infantry of the Guard

   There were three sections:
     * Old Guard (Vieille Garde): This was the crème de la crème of
       Napoleon's army. The Old Guard was made up of the longest serving
       veterans (3-5 campaigns) and consisted of two regiments:
          + Grenadiers à Pied de la Garde Impériale: The Grenadiers of the
            Guard was the most senior regiment in La Grande Armée. During
            the 1807 campaign in Poland, the Grenadiers were given the
            nickname les grognards ("the grumblers") by Napoleon himself.
            They were the most experienced and brave infantrymen in the
            Guard, some veterans having served in over 20 campaigns. To
            join the Grenadiers, a recruit had to have been under the
            colours for at least 10 years, have received a citation for
            bravery, be literate and be over 178cm tall. The Grenadiers à
            Pied did not see combat as often as the infantry of the Young
            or Middle guard, but when they did they performed admirably.
            In 1815, The Old Guard grenadiers were expanded to four
            regiments. The new regiments, the 2e, 3e and 4e Grenadiers
            were immediately classed as Old Guard, despite the fact that
            they were nowhere near the calibre of 1er Grenadiers. In fact,
            the army referred to them as Middle Guard. It was these
            regiments which were defeated by the British Guards at
            Waterloo. The 1er Grenadiers was engaged in fighting the
            Prussians at Placenoit. The Grenadiers à Pied wore a dark blue
            habit long (coat with long tails) with red turnbacks,
            epaulettes and white lapels. The Grenadiers most
            distinguishing feature was the tall bearskin hat, decorated
            with an engraved gold plate, a red plume and white cords.
          + Chasseurs à Pied de la Garde Impériale: The Chasseurs of the
            Guard were the second most senior regiment in La Grande Armée.
            The 1er Chasseurs were the sister formation to the 1er
            Grenadiers à Pied. They had the same entry criteria, however
            accepted men who were 172cm and taller. The Chasseurs
            performed just as well as the Grenadiers in combat, seeing
            action in several crucial battles. Following Napoleon's return
            in 1815, the Chasseurs was expanded to four regiments also,
            with the 2e, 3e and 4e regiments being formed from recruits
            with only four years experience. These regiments, together
            with 'Middle Guard' regiments of Grenadiers à Pied, formed the
            assault of the Guard during the final phase of the battle of
            Waterloo. As with the 1er Grenadiers à Pied, the 1er Chasseurs
            à Pied was engaged at Placenoit. The Chasseurs à Pied wore a
            dark blue habit long (coat with long tails) with red
            turnbacks, red epaulettes fringed green and white lapels. On
            campaign, the Chasseurs often wore dark blue trousers. As with
            the Grenadiers, the Chasseurs most distinguishing feature was
            the tall bearskin, decorated with a red over green plume and
            white cords.
     * Middle Guard (Moyenne Garde): Consisted of veterans of 2-3
       campaigns.
          + Fusiliers-Chasseurs: In 1806, the Fusiliers-Chasseurs was
            formed as a regiment of middle guard infantry. All members of
            the Middle guard were veterans of 2-3 campaigns, and were
            commissioned as NCOs in the Line regiments. Arguably the best
            infantry of the entire Guard, the Fusiliers-Chasseurs most
            often operated together with its sister formation, the
            Fusiliers-Grenadiers, as part of a Guard Fusilier-Brigade. The
            Fusilier-Chasseurs saw extensive action, proving their worth
            time and time again, until they were disbanded in 1814
            following Napoleon's abdication. The Fusiliers-Chasseurs were
            not reformed in 1815 for the Waterloo campaign.
            Fusiliers-Chasseurs wore a dark blue habit (or coat) with
            green epaulettes fringed red, red turnbacks and white lapels.
            Under this they wore a white waistcoat and either blue or
            brown trousers. The Fusiliers-Chasseurs shako had white cords
            and a tall red over green plume. The Fusiliers-Chasseurs were
            armed with a Charleville modele 1777 musket, bayonet and a
            short sabre.
          + Fusiliers-Grenadiers: Formed in 1807, the Fusiliers-Grenadiers
            was a regiment of middle guard infantry. The
            Fusiliers-Grenadiers was organised in the same way as the
            Fusiliers-Chasseurs, being a slightly larger formation. The
            Fusiliers-Grenadiers most often operated together with its
            sister formation, the Fusiliers-Chasseurs, as a part of a
            Guard Fusilier-Brigade. The Fusilier-Grenadiers saw extensive
            action, proving their worth time and time again, until they
            were disbanded in 1814 following Napoleon's abdication. The
            Fusiliers-Grenadiers were not reformed in 1815.
            Fusiliers-Grenadiers wore a dark blue habit (or coat) with red
            epaulettes, red turnbacks and white lapels. Under this they
            wore a white waistcoat and white trousers. The
            Fusiliers-Grenadiers shako had white cords and a tall red
            plume. The Fusiliers-Grenadiers were armed with a Charleville
            modele 1777 musket, bayonet and a short sabre.
          + Marines of the Guard (Marins de la Garde): Sometimes
            translated as The Seamen of the guard, were formed in 1803,
            with their initial purpose being to man the vessel
            transporting the Emperor during the expected crossing of the
            English channel prior to the invasion of the British Isles.
            The battalion was formed with five equipages (or crews),
            companies in all but name. After the cancellation of the
            invasion, the Marins remained a part of the Guard, manning
            whatever boat, barge or other water vessel Napoleon travelled
            in, as well as acting as a combat unit. Seamen of the Guard
            wore navy blue hussar-style dolman jackets, laced gold, with
            navy blue Hungarian style trousers decorated with gold lace.
            They wore a shako trimmed in Gold with a tall red plume.
            Seamen were armed as infantry, with a Charleville modele 1777
            musket and bayonet, and many seamen were also equipped with
            pistols, less cumbersome during their engineering tasks.
     * Young Guard(Jeune Garde): Initially was made up of veterans with at
       least one campaign under their belts, together with bright young
       officers and the best of the annual intake of conscripts. Later its
       ranks would be filled almost entirely by select conscripts and
       volunteers. They were known for their enthusiasm more than their
       combat abilities.
          + Tirailleurs-Grenadiers: In 1808, Napoleon ordered the most
            intelligent and strongest recruits to be formed into the first
            regiments of the Young Guard. The taller of the recruits were
            inducted into the Tirailleurs-Grenadier regiments (renamed to
            Tirailleurs in 1810). All officers of the
            Tirailleurs-Grenadiers were drawn from the Old Guard, and as
            such were entitled to wear bearskins. The NCOs were drawn from
            the Middle Guard. Having this leavening of hardened veterans
            helped to increase the morale and combat abilities of the
            Tirailleurs-Grenadiers, and its sister formations the
            Tirailleurs-Chasseurs. Tirailleurs-Grenadiers wore a dark blue
            habit (or coat) with red epaulettes and dark blue turnbacks
            and lapels piped white. The Tirailleurs-Grenadiers' shako had
            red cords, with a long red plume.
          + Tirailleurs-Chasseurs: The shorter recruits of the Young Guard
            were inducted into the Tirailleurs-Chasseurs (renamed to
            Voltigeurs in 1810). The formation was identical to that of
            the Tirailleurs-Grenadiers, with all officers being drawn from
            the Old Guard, and NCOs coming from the Middle Guard.
            Tirailleurs-Grenadiers wore a dark blue habit (or coat) with
            red turnbacks and dark blue lapels piped white. This was
            further decorated by green epaulettes with red fringing. Their
            shako was decorated with a large plume, which could be
            coloured either green or red over green.

   Grenadier à Pied, 1812 (Napoleon can be seen in the background)

   Grognard of the Old Guard in 1813

   Tirailleur of the 1e Regiment Tirailleurs, Young Guard 1811.

   Fusilier-Grenadiers and Fusilier-Chasseurs of the Middle Guard,
   1806-1814.

Cavalry of the Guard

   In 1804, the Cavalry of the Guard consisted of two regiments, the
   Chasseurs à Cheval and the Grenadiers à Cheval, along with a small unit
   of elite Gendarmes and a squadron of Mamelukes. A third regiment was
   added in 1806, the Regiment de Dragons de la Garde Impériale (Later
   known as the Dragons de l’Imperatice, the Empress Dragoons). Following
   the Campaign in Poland in 1807, a regiment of Polish Lancers, the
   Regiment de Chevau-Légers de la Garde Impériale Polonais was added. The
   final addition was made in 1810, with another Regiment of Lancers, this
   time drawn from French and Dutch recruits, the 2e Regiment de
   Chevau-Légers Lanciers de la Garde Impériale or Red Lancers. The
   cavalry of the Guard was involved in combat numerous times, and with
   few exceptions proved its worth in action. Perhaps the most famous
   episode in the history of the Guard cavalry was the charge of the
   Polish Lancers at the Battle of Waterloo, where, alongside line
   cuirassiers, they routed the Scots Greys and the Union Brigade.
     * Horse Grenadiers (Grenadiers à Cheval de la Garde Impériale): Known
       as the Gods or the Giants, these troopers were the elite of
       Napoleon's guard cavalry and the mounted counterparts of the
       Grognards. The Horse Grenadiers wore tall bearskins, dark blue
       coats and collars, white lapels and tall boots. The entire
       formation was mounted on large black horses. A prospective recruit
       had to be over 176cm tall, have accrued 10 years of service serving
       in a minimum of four campaigns, and have received a citation for
       bravery. The Grenadiers performed admirably at Austerlitz, where
       they defeated the Russian Guard Cavalry, but their most famous
       combat was at the Battle of Eylau. After standing under the fire of
       sixty Russian guns for a time, the troopers began to search for
       cover. Their commander, Colonel Louis Lepic, ordered the troops "Up
       with your heads gentlemen, those are only bullets, not turds". Soon
       after they joined Murat's charge into the Russian lines. The Horse
       Grenadiers, together with the Polish Lancers, were the only Guard
       Cavalry units never beaten in battle.

   Le Chasseur de la Garde (Chasseur of the guard, often mistranslated as
   The Charging Chasseur), 1812 by Géricault.
   Enlarge
   Le Chasseur de la Garde (Chasseur of the guard, often mistranslated as
   The Charging Chasseur), 1812 by Géricault.
     * Chasseurs à Cheval of the Guard (Chasseurs à cheval de la Garde
       Impériale): Known as the "Favoured Children" (connotations of
       Spoiled Brats), the Chasseurs à Cheval of the Guard were the light
       cavalry of the Guard, Napoleon's favourites and one of the most
       recognisable units in La Grande Armée. In 1796, during the Italian
       Campaign, Napoleon ordered the formation of a bodyguard unit after
       he narrowly escaped an attack by Austrian light cavalry at
       Borghetto while at lunch. This 200 man unit of Guides was the
       forerunner of the Chasseurs à Cheval of the Guard, and their close
       affiliation with the Emperor was shown by the fact that he often
       wore the uniform of a Colonel of their regiment. In their
       flamboyant green, red and gold hussar style uniforms, the chasseurs
       were known to exploit their position as the emperor's favourites,
       showing poor discipline and even insubordination on some occasions.
       They first saw combat during the battle of Austerlitz, where they
       played a role in defeating the Russian Guard cavalry. During the
       Peninsular Campaign the Chasseurs were ambushed by a large British
       cavalry force at Benavente in 1808 and defeated. They regained
       their reputation by showing extreme bravery during the Battle of
       Waterloo.
     * Elite Gendarmes (Gendarmerie d’Elite): Nicknamed The Immortals due
       to the fact that they rarely saw combat, the Gendarmes nonetheless
       performed a vital role. Gendarmes were the military police of La
       Grande Armée. Along with maintaining security and order near the
       headquarters, the Gendarmes would provide honour guards for high
       ranking visitors, interrogate prisoners and protect the Emperor's
       personal baggage. The Gendarmes wore dark blue coats with red
       lapels and tall boots, along with a bearskin slightly smaller than
       that of the Horse Grenadiers. After 1807, the Gendarmes began to
       see more combat, distinguishing themselves in guarding the Danube
       bridge at Aspern-Essling in 1809.
     * Squadron of Mamelukes (Escadron de Mamalukes): Fearsome desert
       warriors, whose loyalty Bonaparte purchased during his Egyptian
       campaign. They combined superb horsemanship and swordsmanship with
       fanatical courage. Often romantically viewed as "authentic sons of
       the desert" or even "head-hunters", their officers were French, the
       NCOs and ranks were comprised of not only Egyptians and Turks but
       Greeks, Georgians, Syrians and Cypriots as well. Originally they
       were an attached company (or "Half-Squadron") of the
       Chasseurs-a-Cheval de la Garde. They distinguished themselves at
       Austerlitz in 1805, winning their own standard, a second trumpeter
       and promotion to full Squadron. This unit eventually became part of
       the Old guard, and served the Emperor right up to Waterloo. In
       1813, a second Mameluke company was raised and attached to the
       Young guard. As with their predecessors, they were incorporated
       into the Chasseurs, and served along side with them during the
       Hundred days in 1815. Their distinct and colourful uniforms
       consisted of a green (later red) cahouk (hat), white turban, a
       loose shirt and a vest and red saroual (pants), with yellow, red or
       tan boots. Their weapons consisted of a long, curved Scimitar, a
       brace of pistols and a dagger. Their hats and weapons were
       inscribed with a crescent and star insignia of brass.
     * Lancers of the Guard (Chevau-Légers-Lanciers de la Garde
       Impériale):
          + 1e Regt (Polish) In 1807 Napoleon authorized the raising of a
            guard regiment of Polish light horse. They were to be given
            French instructors and training. But during their first review
            before the Emperor, their ranks became so entangled that
            Bonaparte quipped, "These people only know how to fight!" and
            dismissed their instructors on the spot. But he kept his Poles
            by his side and the following year at Somosierra they would
            have another opportunity to prove themselves, on the
            battlefield instead of the parade ground. Napoleon ordered
            them to charge against a heavily fortified Spanish artillery
            position. Armed with only sabres and pistols, they overran
            four batteries, capturing over 20 cannons and decisively
            turned the tide. Following this, almost legendary, feat
            Napoleon proclaimed "Poles, You are worthy of my Old Guard I
            proclaim you my bravest cavalry!". Promoted to the Old Guard,
            they were then given lances, remained at the Emperor's side
            until Waterloo, and were never defeated by enemy cavalry. The
            1e Regiment of the Guard developed a rivalry with their fellow
            Poles of the 1e Vistula Uhlans of the regular Armee. This was
            not simply based on who was the better unit, but on deep
            political differences as well, with the Lancers fanatical
            Bonapartists, while many, if not most, of the Uhlans held
            fiercely Republican sentiments. Such differences, political
            and otherwise, between units were not unusual and are well
            illustrated here. From being instructed by the French, they,
            along with their Vistula rivals, would go on to serve as
            instructors and models for the French and most other lancer
            regiments of the Armée, thus greatly multiplying their
            fearsome effectiveness.
          + 2e Regt (French-Dutch) Formed in 1810 from a French and Dutch
            cadre. They were called Les Lanciers Rouges (the Red Lancers)
            due to their distinctive uniforms. They too suffered heavily
            in Russia at the hands of the Cossacks and the hardships of
            the winter, with most of its men and all but a handful of the
            horses lost. The regiment was rebuilt in 1813 and it became a
            powerful unit with its first four squadrons of veterans in the
            Old Guard and the new recruits of 6 junior squadrons in the
            young. They would distinguish themselves in numerous
            engagements, including, finally, Waterloo.
          + 3e regt (Polish) was formed in 1812 as part of the Young
            Guard. Its officers and NCOs were veterans, but its ranks were
            filled by enthusiastic yet inexperienced students and sons of
            Polish and Lithuanian landholders. With little training, they
            were thrown into the Russian campaign where they were
            surrounded and the entire regiment wiped out at Slonim, later
            that year by Cossacks and hussars.

     * Empress Dragoons (Dragons de l’Impératice): Formed in 1806 as the
       Imperial Guard Dragoon Regiment (Regiment de Dragons de la Garde
       Impériale), it was renamed in honour of Empress Josephine the
       following year. Originally candidates had to have at least 6 (later
       10) years of service, participated in no fewer than 2 campaigns
       with citations for bravery, be literate and at least 173 cm tall
       (slightly shorter than for the Horse Grenadier Guards). No more
       than 12 candidates from each of the 30 regular Dragoon regiments
       were allowed to apply at any one call, this quota would later be
       reduced to 10. Volunteers from other guard regiments were also
       allowed to transfer. Since this was as much a ceremonial as a
       combat unit and was rarely committed in battle, billets in the
       Empress Dragoons were highly sought after positions. As with the
       Red Lancers, it had squadrons in both the Old and Young guards and
       served with the Emperor until the end.

   Horse Grenadiers of the Guard riding in review, by Rousellot.

   Polish Lancers of the Guard on parade.

   A Red Lancer.

   Empress Dragoons in parade uniform by Rousellot.

Cavalry

   By decree of the Emperor himself, cavalry typically comprised between a
   fifth and a sixth of the Grande Armée. Cavalry regiments of 800-1,200
   men were made up of three or four Escadrons of two companies each, plus
   supporting elements. The first company of the every regiment's first
   escadron, was always designated as 'Elite', with presumably, the best
   men and horses. In the revolution's wake, the cavalry suffered the
   greatest from the loss of experienced aristocratic officers and NCOs
   still loyal to the crown of the Ancien Régime. Consequently, the
   quality of French cavalry drastically declined. Napoleon rebuilt the
   branch, turning it into arguably the finest in the world. Until 1812 it
   was undefeated in any large engagements above the regimental level.
   There were two primary types of cavalry for different roles, heavy and
   light.

Heavy cavalry

     * Cuirassiers: The heavy (Lourde) cavalry, equipped and armed almost
       like the knights of old with a heavy cuirass (breastplate) and
       helmets of brass and iron and armed with straight long sabers,
       pistols and later carbines. As with the knights, they served as the
       shock troops of the cavalry. Because of the weight of their armour
       and weapons, both trooper and horse had to be big and strong, and
       could consequently put a lot of force behind their charge. However,
       they mostly served to support the light cavalry and dragoons.
       Despite this, they proved a potent force on the battlefield,
       leaving their opponents impressed if not awestruck. The British, in
       particular, who mistakenly believed the cuirassiers were Napoleon's
       bodyguard, and would later come to adapt their distinctive helmets
       and breastplates for their own Horse Guards. There were originally
       25 cuirassier regiments, later 18.
     * Dragoons (Dragons): The medium-weight mainstays of the French
       cavalry, although considered heavy cavalry, who were used for
       battle, skirmishing and scouting. They were highly versatile being
       armed not only with traditional sabres (the finest with three edges
       made of Toledo steel), but also pistols and muskets (which were
       kept in a saddleboot when riding), enabling them to fight on foot
       as infantry as well as mounted. Part of the price for this
       versatility was their horsemanship and swordsmanship were often not
       up to the same standards as that of the other cavalry troops. Which
       made them the subjects of some mockery and derision. Finding enough
       of the right kinds of horses for these part-time cavalrymen also
       proved a challenge. Some infantry officers were even required to
       give up their mounts for the dragoons, creating resentment towards
       them from this branch as well. There were 25, later 30, dragoon
       regiments. In 1815, only 15 could be raised and mounted in time for
       the Hundred Days.
     * Carabiniers-à-Cheval: Similar in arms and role to Dragoons.
       However, being more lightly armed and (initially) unarmored, they
       were less suited for close-quarters, melee combat. This made them
       less versatile, and therefore less numerous (only 2 regiments
       originally) and less regarded than the Dragoons. In 1809, appalled
       by their mauling at the hands of the Austrian Uhlans, Napoleon
       ordered that they be given armour. But this did not prevent them
       from being defeated by the Russian cuirassiers at Borodino in 1812,
       and panicking before the Hungarian hussars at Leipzig the following
       year.

Light cavalry

     * Hussars (Hussards): These fast, light cavalrymen were the eyes,
       ears and egos of Napoleonic armies. They regarded themselves as the
       best horsemen and swordsmen (beau sabreurs) in the entire Armée.
       This opinion was not entirely unjustified and their flamboyant
       uniforms reflected their panache. Tactically, they were used for
       reconnaissance, skirmishing and screening for the army to keep
       their commanders informed of enemy movements while denying the foe
       the same information and to pursue fleeing enemy troops. Armed only
       with curved sabres and pistols, they had reputations for reckless
       bravery to the point of being almost suicidal. It was said a Hussar
       who lived to be 30 was truly old guard and very fortunate. There
       were 10 regiments in 1804, with an 11th added in 1810 and two more
       in 1813.
     * Chasseurs-à-Cheval (Mounted Hunters), were light cavalry identical
       to Hussars in arms and role. But, unlike the chasseurs of the
       Imperial guard discussed previously and their infantry counterparts
       discussed below, they were considered less prestigious or elite.
       Their uniforms were less colourful as well, consisting of
       infantry-style shakos (in contrast to the hussars' distinctive
       bearskins), green coats, green breeches and short boots. They were,
       however, the most numerous of the light cavalry, with 31 regiments
       in 1811, 6 of which were comprised of non-French Belgians, Swiss,
       Italians and Germans.
     * Lancers (Lanciers) : Some of the most feared cavalry in Napoleon's
       armies were the Polish lancers of the Vistula Uhlans. Nicknamed
       Hell's Picadors or Los Diablos Polacos (The Polish Devils) by the
       Spanish, these medium and light horse ( Chevau-Légère Lanciers)
       cavalry had speed nearly equal to the Hussars, shock power almost
       as great as the Cuirassiers and were nearly as versatile as the
       Dragoons. They were armed with, as their name indicates, lances
       along with sabres and pistols. Lancers were the best cavalry for
       charging against infantry in square, where their lances could
       outreach the infantry's bayonets, (as happened to Colborne's
       British brigade at Albuera in 1811) and also in hunting down a
       routed enemy. They could be deadly against other types of cavalry
       as well, most famously demonstrated by the fate of Sir William
       Ponsonby and his Scots Greys at Waterloo. Excluding those of the
       guard, there were 9 lancer regiments. After the wars, the British
       were impressed enough to create their own lancer regiments.

   A French Cuirassier charging at Waterloo

   Dragoon Officer of the 21ér Regiment de Dragons

   Hussar of the 2éme Regiment du Hussards, 1807.

   Lancer of the Régiment de la Vistule Uhlans

Infantry

   While the infantry was perhaps not the most glamorous arm of service in
   the Grand Armée, they bore the brunt of most of the fighting, and their
   performance resulted in victory or defeat. The Infantry was divided up
   into two major types, the Infantry of the Line (Infanterie de Ligne)
   and the Light Infantry (Infanterie Légère).

Infantry of the Line

   The Infantry of the Line made up the majority of the Grande Armée. In
   1803, Napoleon had reinstated the term Regiment, the revolutionary term
   demi-brigade (due to the fact there were two per brigade and it lacked
   the royal connotations) was now only used for provisional troops and
   depot units. At the time of the formation of the Grande Armée, the
   French Army had 89 Régiments de Ligne, a number which roughly
   corresponded with the number of départements in France. There would
   eventually be 156 Ligne regiments.

   The Régiments de Ligne varied in size throughout the Napoleonic Wars,
   but the basic building block of the Infanterie of the Line was the
   battalion. A line infantry battalion was numbered at about 840 men;
   however, this was the battalion's 'full strength' and few units ever
   reached this. A more typical strength for a battalion would be 400-600
   men. From 1800 to 1803 a line infantry battalion had eight fusilier
   companies, and one grenadier company. From 1804 to 1807 a line infantry
   battalion had seven fusilier companies, one grenadier company, and one
   voltigeur company. From 1808 to 1815 a line infantry battalion had four
   companies of fusiliers, one company of grenadiers, and one company of
   voltigeurs.
     * Fusiliers

   Fusilier of the Line, c.1812.
   Enlarge
   Fusilier of the Line, c.1812.

   The Fusiliers made up the majority of a line infantry battalion, and
   may be considered the typical infantryman of the Grande Armée. The
   Fusilier was armed with a smoothbore, muzzle-loaded flintlock
   Charleville model 1777 musket and a bayonet. Fusilier training placed
   emphasis on speed of march and endurance, along with individually aimed
   fire at close range and close quarters combat. This differed greatly
   from the training given to the majority of European armies, which
   emphasised moving in rigid formations and firing massed volleys. Many
   of the early Napoleonic victories were due to the ability of the French
   armies to cover long distances with speed, and this ability was thanks
   to the training given to the infantry. From 1803, each battalion
   comprised eight Fusilier companies. Each company numbered around 120
   men.

   In 1805, one of the Fusilier companies was dissolved and reformed as a
   Voltigeur company. In 1808, Napoleon reorganised the Infantry battalion
   from nine to six companies. The new companies were to be larger,
   comprising 140 men, and four of these were to be made up of Fusiliers,
   one of Grenadiers, and one of Voltigeurs.

   The line Fusilier wore a bicorne hat, until this was superseded by the
   shako in 1807. The uniform of a Fusilier consisted of white trousers,
   white surcoat and a dark blue coat (the habit long model until 1812,
   thereafter the habit veste) with white lapels, red collar and cuffs.
   Each Fusilier wore a coloured pom-pom on his hat. The colour of this
   pom-pom changed depending on the company the man belonged to. After the
   1808 reorganisation, the First company was issued with a dark green
   pom-pom, the second with sky blue, the third with orange and the fourth
   with violet.
     * Grenadiers

   Grenadiers were the élite of the line infantry and the veteran shock
   troops of the Napoleonic infantry. Newly formed battalions did not have
   a Grenadier company; rather, Napoleon ordered that after two campaigns,
   several of the strongest, bravest and tallest fusiliers were to be
   promoted to the Grenadier company, so each line battalion which had
   seen more than two campaigns had one company of Grenadiers.

   Regulations required that Grenadiers recruits were to be the tallest,
   most fearsome men in the regiments, and all were to have moustaches. To
   add to this, Grenadiers were initially equipped the a bonnet à poil or
   bearskin, as well as red epaulettes on their coat. After 1807
   regulations stipulated that line Grenadiers were to replace their
   bearskin with a shako lined red with a red plume; however, many chose
   to retain their bearskins. In addition to the standard Charleville
   model 1777 and bayonet, Grenadiers were also equipped with a short
   sabre. This was to be used for close combat, but most often ended up
   serving as a tool to cut wood for campfires.

   The Grenadier company would usually be situated on the right side of a
   formation, traditionally the place of greatest honour. During a
   campaign, Grenadier companies could be detached to form a Grenadier
   battalion or occasionally a regiment or brigade. These formations would
   then be used as a shock force or the vanguard for a larger formation.
     * Voltigeurs

   Voltigeurs (literally, Vaulters or Leapers) were élite light infantry
   of the line regiments. In 1805, Napoleon ordered that the smallest,
   most agile men of the line battalions be chosen to form a Voltigeur
   company. These troops were to be second only to the Grenadiers in the
   battalion hierarchy. Their name comes from their original mission.
   Voltigeurs were to combat enemy cavalry by vaulting up onto the enemy's
   horses, a fanciful idea which failed to succeed in combat. Despite
   this, the Voltigeurs did perform a valuable task, skirmishing and
   providing scouts for each battalion, as well as providing an organic
   light infantry component for each line regiment. In Voltigeur training,
   emphasis was placed on marksmanship and quick movement.

   Voltigeurs were equipped with large yellow and green or yellow and red
   plumes for their bicornes. After 1807, their shakos were lined with
   yellow and carried similar plumes. They also had yellow epaulettes
   lined green and a yellow collar on their coats.

   Originally, Voltigeurs were to be equipped with the short dragoon
   musket, however in practice they were equipped with the Charleville
   model 1777 and bayonet. Like Grenadiers, Voltigeurs were equipped with
   a short sabre for close combat, and like Grenadiers this was rarely
   used. Voltigeur companies could be detached and formed into regiments
   or brigades to create a light infantry formation. After 1808, the
   Voltigeur company was situated on the left of the line when in combat.
   This was traditionally the second highest position of honour in the
   line of battle.

Light Infantry

   While the Infantry of the Line made up the majority of the Grande
   Armée's infantry, the Infanterie Légère ( Light Infantry) also played
   an important role. The Légère regiments never numbered more than 35
   (compared with the 155 of the Ligne regiments), and the Ligne could
   perform all the same manoeuvres, including skirmishing. The difference
   lay in the training and the resulting high esprit de corps.

   Training for Légère units placed a strong emphasis on marksmanship and
   fast movement. As a result, the general Légère soldier was able to
   shoot more accurately and move faster than his Ligne counterpart.
   Légère regiments tended to see more action and were often used to
   screen large manoeuvres. Naturally, due to the fact that commanders
   turned to the Légère for more missions than the Ligne, the Légère
   troopers enjoyed a higher esprit de corps and were known for their
   flamboyant uniforms and attitude. Also, Légère troops were required to
   be shorter than line troops, which helped them to move quickly through
   forests as well as to hide behind obstacles when skirmishing. The
   formation of a Légère battalion exactly mirrored that of a battalion of
   line infantry, but different troop types were substituted for the
   Grenadiers, Fusiliers and Voltigeurs.
     * Chasseurs

   Chasseurs (Hunters) were the fusiliers of the Légère battalions. They
   made up the majority of the formation. They were armed with the
   Charleville model 1777 musket and a bayonet, and also with a short
   sabre for close combat. As was common in the Napoleonic army, this
   weapon was quickly blunted by being used to chop wood for fires.

   From 1803, each battalion comprised eight chasseur companies. Each
   company numbered around 120 men. In 1808, Napoleon reorganised the
   Infantry battalion from nine to six companies. The new companies were
   to be larger, comprising 140 men, and four of these were to be made up
   of chasseurs.

   The chasseurs had far more ornate uniforms than their contemporaries
   the fusiliers. Until 1806, they were equipped with a cylindrical shako
   with a large dark green plume and decorated with white cords. Their
   uniform was a darker blue than that of the line regiments, to aid with
   camouflage while skirmishing. Their coat was similar to that of the
   line troops, but their lapels and cuffs were also dark blue, and it
   featured dark green and red epaulettes. They also wore dark blue
   trousers and high imitation hussar boots. After 1807, the cylindrical
   shako was replaced with the standard shako, but was still embellished
   by white cords. As with the line fusiliers, chasseur companies were
   distinguished by coloured pom-poms, but the colours for the different
   companies changed from regiment to regiment.
     * Carabiniers

   The Carabiniers were the grenadiers of the Légère battalions. After two
   campaigns, the tallest and bravest chasseurs were chosen to join the
   Carabinier company. They performed as élite shock troops for the
   battalion. As with the grenadiers, Carabiniers were required to wear
   moustaches. They were armed with the Charleville model 1777, a bayonet
   and a short sabre. The Carabinier uniform consisted of a tall bearskin
   cap (superseded in 1807 by a red trimmed shako with a red plume). They
   wore the same uniform as the chasseurs, but with red epaulettes.
   Carabinier companies could be detached to form larger all Carabinier
   formations for assaults or other operations requiring assault troops.
     * Voltigeurs

   Voltigeurs performed exactly the same mission in the Légère battalion
   as they did in the line battalions, only they were more nimble and
   better marksmen. The Légère voltigeurs were dressed as chasseurs, but
   with Yellow and green epaulettes and before 1806, a colpack (or busby)
   replaced the shako. The colpack had a large yellow over red plume and
   green cords. After 1807, a shako replaced the colpack, with a large
   yellow plume and yellow lining. As with the line voltigeurs, légère
   voltigeurs could be detached and used to form larger formations as
   needed.

   Grenadier of the Line, c.1812.

   A cornet (or trumpeter) of the Infanterie Légère.

   Officers of Infanterie Légère, 1803-1815.

   Chasseurs of Infanterie Légère 1806.

Artillery

   The Emperor was a former artillery officer, and dubbed it "The King Of
   The Battlefield". As may therefore be expected, French cannons were the
   backbone of the Grande Armée's forces, possessing the greatest
   fire-power of the three arms and hence the ability to inflict the most
   casualties in the least amount of time. The French guns were often used
   in massed batteries (or grandes batteries) to soften up enemy
   formations before being subjected to the closer attention of the
   infantry or cavalry. Superb gun-crew training allowed Napoleon to move
   the weapons at great speed to either bolster a weakening defensive
   position, or else hammer a potential break in enemy lines.

   Besides superior training, Napoleon's artillery was also greatly aided
   by the numerous technical improvements to French cannons by Jean
   Baptiste de Gribeauval which made them lighter, faster and much easier
   to sight, as well as strengthened the carriages and introduced standard
   sized calibres. In general, French guns were 4- pounders, 8-pounders or
   12-pounders and 6- inch howitzers with the lighter calibres being
   phased out and replaced by 6-pounders later in the wars. French cannons
   had brass barrels and their carriages, wheels and limbers were painted
   olive-green. Superb organization, fully integrated the artillery into
   the infantry and cavalry units it supported, yet also allowed it to
   operate independently if the need arose. There were two basic types,
   Artillerie à Pied (Foot artillery) and Artillerie à Cheval (Horse
   artillery).

Foot artillery

   As the name indicates, these gunners marched alongside their guns,
   which were, of course, pulled by horses when limbered (undeployed).
   Hence they travelled at the Infantry's pace or slower. In 1805 there
   were 8, later 10, regiments of foot artillery in the Armée plus 2 more
   in the Imperial guard, but unlike cavalry and infantry regiments, these
   were administrative organizations. The main operational and tactical
   units were the batteries (or companies) of 120 men each which were
   formed into brigades and assigned to the divisions and corps.
     * Divisional artillery: Every division had a brigade of 3 or 4
       batteries of 6 guns (4 cannons and 2 howitzers) each.
     * Corps artillery reserve: Each Corps would also have its own
       artillery reserve, of one of more Brigades, armed mostly with the
       larger, heavier calibre pieces.

   Battery personnel included not only gun crews, NCOs and officers but
   drummers, metal workers, woodworkers, ouvriers, furriers and
   artificers. They would be responsible for fashioning spare parts,
   maintaining and repairing the guns, carriages, caissons and wagons, as
   well as tending the horses and storing munitions.

Horse artillery

   The cavalry were supported by the fast moving, fast firing light guns
   of the Horse artillery. This arm was a hybrid of cavalry and artillery
   with their crews either riding on the horses or on the carriages into
   battle. Because they operated much closer to the front lines, the
   officers and crews were better armed and trained for close quarters
   combat, mounted or dismounted much as were the dragoons. Once in
   position they were trained to quickly dismount, unlimber (deploy) and
   sight their guns, then fire rapid barrages at the enemy. They could
   then quickly limber (undeploy) the guns, remount, and move on to a new
   position. To accomplish this, they had to be the best trained and most
   elite of all artillerymen. The horse batteries of the Imperial guard
   could go from riding at full gallop to firing their first shot in just
   under a minute. After witnessing such a performance, an astounded Duke
   of Wellington remarked, "They move their cannon as if it were a
   pistol!" There were 6 administrative regiments of horse artillery plus
   one in the guard. In addition to the batteries assigned to the cavalry
   units, Napoleon would also assign at least one battery to each infantry
   corps or, if available, to each division. Their abilities came at a
   price, however, horse batteries were very expensive to raise and
   maintain. Consequently they were far fewer in number than their foot
   counterparts, typically comprising only 1/5 of the artillery's
   strength. It was a boastful joke among their ranks that the Emperor
   knew every horse gunner by name. Besides better training, horses,
   weapons and equipment, they used far more ammunition. Horse batteries
   were given twice the ammo ration of the foot, those of the guard three
   times.

Artillery Train

   The Train d’artillerie, was established by Bonaparte in January 1800.
   Its function was to provide the teamsters and drivers which handled the
   horses that hauled the artillery's vehicles. Prior to this the French,
   like all other period armies, had employed contracted, civilian
   teamsters who would sometimes abandon the guns under fire, rendering
   them immobile, rather than risk their lives or their valuable teams of
   horses. Its personnel, unlike their civilian predecessors, were armed,
   trained and uniformed as soldiers. Apart from making them look better
   on parade, this made them subject to military discipline and capable of
   fighting back if attacked. The drivers were armed with a carbine, a
   short sword of the same type used by the infantry and a pistol. They
   needed little encouragement to use these weapons, earning surly
   reputations for gambling, brawling and various forms of mischief. Their
   uniforms and coats of grey helped enhance their tough appearance. But
   their combativeness could prove useful as they often found themselves
   attacked by cossacks, Spanish and Tyrolian guerillas.

   Each train d’artillerie battalion was originally composed of 5
   companies. The first company was considered elite and was assigned to a
   horse artillery battery; the three "centre" companies were assigned to
   the foot artillery batteries and "parks" (spare caissons, field forges,
   supply wagons, etc.); and one became the depot company for training
   recruits and remounts. Following the campaigns of 1800, the train was
   re-organized into eight battalions of six companies each. As Napoleon
   enlarged his artillery, additional battalions were created, rising to a
   total of fourteen in 1810. In 1809, 1812 and 1813 the first thirteen
   battalions were "doubled" to create 13 additional battalions.
   Additionally, after 1809 some battalions raised extra companies to
   handle the regimental guns attached to the infantry.

   The Imperial Guard had its own train, which expanded as La Garde's
   artillery park was increased, albeit organized as regiments rather than
   battalions. At their zenith, in 1813-14, the Old Guard artillery was
   supported by a 12-company regiment while the Young Guard had a
   16-company regiment, one for each of their component artillery
   batteries.

Support services

Engineers

   While the glory of battle went to the cavalry, infantry and artillery,
   the army also included military engineers of various types.

   The bridge builders of the Grande Armée, the pontonniers, were an
   indispensable part of Napoleon's military machine. Their main
   contribution was helping the emperor to get his forces across water
   obstacles by erecting pontoon bridges. The skills of his pontonniers
   allowed Napoleon to outflank enemy positions by crossing rivers where
   the enemy least expected and, in the case of the great retreat from
   Moscow, saved the army from complete annihilation at the Beresina.

   They may not have had the glory, but Napoleon clearly valued his
   pontonniers and had 14 companies commissioned into his armies, under
   the command of the brilliant engineer, General Jean Baptiste Eble. His
   training along with their specialized tools and equipment, enabled them
   to quickly build the various parts of the bridges, which could then be
   rapidly assembled and reused later. All the needed materials, tools and
   parts were carried on their wagon trains. If they did not have a part
   or item, it could be quickly made using the pontonniers' mobile
   wagon-mounted forges. A single company of pontonniers could construct a
   bridge of up to 80 pontoons (a span of some 120 to 150 metres long) in
   a just under seven hours, an impressive feat even by today's standards.

   In addition to the pontonniers, there were companies of sappers, to
   deal with enemy fortifications. They were used far less often in their
   intended role than the pontonniers, however, since the emperor had
   learned in his early campaigns (such as at the Siege of Acre) that it
   was better to bypass and isolate fixed fortifications, if possible,
   than to directly assault them, so the sapper companies were usually put
   to other tasks.

   The different types of engineer companies were formed into battalions
   and regiments called Génie, which was originally a slang term for
   engineer. This name, which is still used today, was both a play on the
   word (jeu de mot) and a reference to their seemingly magical abilities
   to grant wishes and make things appear much like the mythical Genie.

Logistics

   One of Napoleon's most quoted lines is his dictum that "An army is a
   creature which marches on its stomach". This clearly illustrates the
   vital importance of military logistics. The troops of the Grande Armée
   each carried 4 days' provisions. The supply wagon trains following them
   carried 8 days', but these were to be consumed only in emergency.
   Insofar as possible, Napoleon encouraged his men to live off the land
   through foraging and requisition of food (which was known as La
   Maraude).

   Additional supplies would be stockpiled and stored at forward bases and
   depots which he would establish before the start of his campaigns.
   These would then be moved forward as the army advanced. The Grande
   Armée's supply bases would replenish the Corps and Divisional depots,
   which in turn would replenish the Brigade and Regimental supply trains,
   which would distribute rations and ammunition to the troops as needed
   to supplement their foraging. The reliance on foraging was sometimes
   determined by political pressures. When marching over friendly
   territory armies were told to "live off what the country can supply",
   but when marching over neutral territory they were issued with
   supplies. It was this system of planned and improvised logistics which
   enabled the Grande Armée to sustain rapid marches of up to 15 miles per
   day for up to 5 weeks. The logistical system was also aided by a
   technological innovation in the form of the food preservation technique
   invented by Nicolas François Appert, which led to modern canning
   methods.

Medical staff

   Cuirassier blessé quittant le feu (Wounded Cuirassier leaving the
   battle), 1814 by Théodore Géricault.
   Enlarge
   Cuirassier blessé quittant le feu (Wounded Cuirassier leaving the
   battle), 1814 by Théodore Géricault.

   The medical services had the least glory or prestige, yet they were
   required to deal with the full horrors of war's aftermath. Every
   regiment, division and corps had its own medical staff, consisting of
   corpsmen to find and transport the wounded, orderlies to provide
   assistance and nursing functions, apothecaries, surgeons and doctors.
   These staffs were often filled by poorly-trained and inept men, unfit
   for any other work. Conditions in the Grande Armée, as in all armies of
   the time, were primitive at best. Far more soldiers died of their
   wounds or from sickness than in battle (see Napoleonic Wars
   casualties). There was no knowledge of hygiene or antibiotics.
   Virtually the only surgical procedure was amputation. The only
   anaesthetic consisted of strong alcoholic drink or even, in some cases,
   knocking the patient unconscious. Typically only a third survived the
   operation.

   While the technology and practice of military medicine did not advance
   significantly during the Napoleonic wars, the Grande Armée did benefit
   from improvements in the organization of staffs and the establishment
   of a Flying Ambulance system, by its Surgeon General, Baron Dominique
   Jean Larrey. After seeing the speed with which the carriages of the
   French flying artillery manoeuvred across the battlefields, General
   Larrey adapted them for rapid transport of the wounded and manned them
   with trained crews of drivers, corpsmen and litter bearers. This
   forerunner of the modern military ambulance system, was eventually
   adapted by armies throughout the world in the following decades. In
   addition, Larrey increased the mobility and improved the organization
   of field hospitals, effectively creating a prototype for the modern
   Mobile Army Surgical Hospital.

   Accounts of the ordeals of the wounded are horrific reading. Napoleon,
   himself, once noted "It requires more courage to suffer than to die",
   so he made sure those who did survive were given the best treatment
   available at the best hospitals in France while they recuperated. In
   addition, the wounded survivors were often treated as heroes, awarded
   medals, pensions and provided with prosthetic limbs if needed. Knowing
   that they would be promptly attended to, then honored and well looked
   after once back home, helped boost morale in the Grande Armée, and thus
   further contributed to its fighting abilities.

Communications

   Communications, though described here last, were certainly not the
   least of essential support services. Most dispatches were conveyed as
   they had been for centuries, via messengers on horseback. Hussars, due
   to their bravery and riding skills, were often favoured for this task.
   Shorter range tactical signals could be sent visually by flags or
   audibly by drums, bugles, trumpets and other musical instruments. Thus
   standard bearers and musicians, in addition to their symbolic,
   ceremonial and morale functions, also played important communication
   roles.
   A Chappe semaphore tower near Saverne, France.
   Enlarge
   A Chappe semaphore tower near Saverne, France.

   The Grande Armée did benefit from innovations made in long range
   communications during the French Revolution. The French army was among
   the first to employ homing pigeons as messengers in any large and
   organized manner, and also the first to use observation ballons for
   reconnaissance and communications. But the real advance for conveying
   long range dispatches came in the form of an ingenious optical
   Telegraph Semaphore system invented by Claude Chappe.

   Chappe's system was comprised of an intricate network of small towers,
   within visual range of one another. On top of each was a 9 metre mast,
   with three large, movable wooden rods mounted on them. These rods,
   called the régulateur (regulator), were operated by trained crews using
   a series of pulleys and levers. The four basic positions of the rods
   could be combined to form 196 different "signs". Provided with good
   crews of operators and decent visibility conditions, a sign could be
   sent through the 15 station towers between Paris and Lille, a distance
   of 193 km (120 miles), in only 9 minutes, a complete message of 36
   signs in about 32 minutes. From Paris to Venice, a message could be
   sent in only six hours.

   Chappe's telegraph soon became one of Napoleon's favourite and most
   important secret weapons. A special portable version semaphore
   telegraph travelled with his headquarters. Using it he was able to
   coordinate his logistics and forces over longer distances in far less
   time than his enemies. Work was even begun on a wagon-mounted version
   in 1812, but not completed in time for use in the wars.

Foreign Troops in La Grande Armée

   Many European armies recruited foreign troops, and Napoleonic France
   was no exception. Foreign troops played an important role and fought
   with distinction in La Grande Armée during the Napoleonic Wars. Almost
   every continental European country was, at different stages, a part of
   the La Grande Armée. By the end of the conflict tens-of-thousands had
   served. In 1805 35,000 troops from the Confederation of the Rhine were
   used to protect lines of communications and flanks of the main army. In
   1806 27,000 more troops were called up for similar purposes, plus
   20,000 Saxon troops were used for mopping up operations against the
   Prussians. In the Winter Campaign of 1806-7, Germans, Poles, and
   Spaniards helped seize Baltic ports at Stralsund and Danzig on La
   Grande Armée's left flank. At the Battle of Friedland in 1807, the
   Corps of Marshal Lannes was formed considerably form Poles, Saxons, and
   Dutch. For the first time foreign troops had played a role in a major
   battle, and done so with distinction. In the 1809 Austrian Campaign
   possibly as many as one-third of the La Grande Armée, were from the
   Confederation of the Rhine, and one-quarter of the Army in Italy was
   Italian. At La Grande Armée's peak in 1812, more than half the troops
   that marched into Russia were non-French and represented 20 different
   countries, including Austrian and Prussian troops.

Ranks of the Grande Armée

   Unlike the armies of the Ancien Régime and other monarchies,
   advancement in the Grande Armée was based on proven ability rather than
   social class or wealth. Napoleon wanted his army to be a meritocracy,
   where every soldier, no matter how humble of birth, could rise rapidly
   to the highest levels of command, much as he had done (provided, of
   course, they did not rise too high or too fast). By and large this goal
   was achieved. Given the right opportunities to prove themselves,
   capable men could rise to the top within a few years, whereas in other
   armies it usually required decades if at all. It was said even the
   lowliest private carried a marshal's baton in his knapsack. Here is a
   list of officer and enlisted ranks with their contemporary
   Anglo-American equivalents, followed by a gallery of some of those who
   rose to the top, earned their batons and played key roles in the
   Armée's campaigns and operations.

   Grande Armée rank Modern equivalent
   Commissioned officers
   Maréchal Lieutenant General
   Général de division Major General
   Général de brigade Brigadier General
   Colonel Colonel
   Colonel en second (Chef de brigade 1793-1803) No equivalent
   Major Lieutenant Colonel
   Chef de bataillon or Chef d'escadron Major
   Capitaine Captain
   Lieutenant First Lieutenant
   Sous-lieutenant Second Lieutenant
   Non-commissioned officers
   Adjudant-Chef Warrant Officer
   Adjudant Sergeant-Major
   Sergent-Major or Maréchal des logis Chef First sergeant
   Sergent or Maréchal des Logis Sergeant
   Caporal-Fourrier or Brigadier-Fourrier Company clerk/supply Sergeant
   Caporal or Brigadier. Corporal
   Soldat or Cavalier(Cavalry) or Canonnier(Artillery) Private

   Jean Baptiste Bernadotte

   Louis Alexandre Berthier

   Jean-Baptiste Bessières

   Louis Nicolas Davout

   Jean Lannes

   Étienne-Jacques MacDonald

   Auguste Marmont

   André Masséna

   Édouard Joseph Mortier

   Joachim Murat

   Michel Ney

   Nicolas Oudinot

   Józef Antoni Poniatowski

   Nicolas Soult

   Louis Gabriel Suchet

   Claude Victor

Formations and tactics

   Banner of the 1st Regiment of Grenadier a Pied, showing the battle
   honours.
   Enlarge
   Banner of the 1st Regiment of Grenadier a Pied, showing the battle
   honours.

   While Napoleon is best known as a master strategist and charismatic
   presence on the battlefield, he was also a tactical innovator. He
   combined classic formations and tactics which had been used for
   thousands of years, with more recent ones such as Frederick the Great's
   "Oblique Order" (Best illustrated at the Battle of Leuthen) and the
   "Mob tactics" of the early Levée en masse armies of the Revolution.
   Napoleonic tactics and formations were highly fluid and flexible. In
   contrast, many of the Armée's opponents were still wed to a rigid
   system of "Linear" (or Line) tactics and formations, in which masses of
   infantry would simply line up and exchange vollies of fire, in an
   attempt to either blow the enemy from the field or outflank them. Due
   to the vulnerabilities of the line formations to flanking attacks, it
   was considered the highest form of military manoeuvre to outflank ones'
   adversary. Armies would often retreat or even surrender if this was
   accomplished. Consequently, commanders who adhered to this system,
   would place a great emphasis on flank security, often at the expense of
   a strong centre or reserve. Napoleon would frequently take full
   advantage of this linear mentality, by feigning flank attacks, or
   offering the enemy his own flank as "bait" (Best illustrated at the
   Battle of Austerlitz and also later at Lützen), then throw his main
   effort against their centre, split their lines and roll up their
   flanks. He always kept a strong reserve as well, mainly in the form of
   his Imperial Guard, which could deliver a "knockout blow" if the battle
   was going well or turn the tide if it was not.

   Some of the more famous, widely used, effective and interesting
   formations and tactics included:
     * Line (Ligne): The basic three rank line formation, best used for
       delivering volley fire and was also a decent melee formation for
       infantry or cavalry, but it was relatively slow moving and
       vulnerable on the flanks.
     * March Column (Colonne de Marche): The best formation for rapid or
       sustained movement of troops and a good melee attacking formation,
       but it offered little firepower and was also vulnerable to flank
       attack, ambush, artillery and "funneling".
     * Wedge (Colonne de Charge): An arrow or spearhead shaped cavalry
       formation, designed to close rapidly and break the enemy's line.
       Classic, and effective, mounted formation used throughout history,
       and still used by tanks today. But if the wedge is halted, or its
       attack loses momentum, then it is vulnerable to counter- pincer
       attack on its flanks.
     * Attack Column (Colonne d'Attaque): A wide column of infantry,
       almost a hybrid of line and column, with light infantry skirmishers
       in front to disrupt the enemy and screen the column's advance. Once
       the column closed, the skirmishers would move off to its flanks,
       then the column would fire a massed musket salvo and charge with
       their bayonets. An excellent formation against a standard, thin
       line. The Attack Column was developed from the "Mob" or "Horde"
       tactics of the early French revolutionary armies. Its disadvantages
       were a lack of massed firepower and vulnerability to artillery
       fire.
     * Mixed Order (Ordre Mixte): Was Napoleon's preferred infantry
       formation. Some units (usually regiments or battalions in size)
       would be placed in line formation, with other units in attack
       column behind and in between them. This combined the firepower of
       the line with the speed, melee and skirmishing advantages of the
       attack column. It also had some of the disadvantages of both, so
       support from artillery and cavalry were especially vital for this
       tactic to succeed.
     * Open Order (Ordre Ouvert): Foot and/or horse would spread out by
       unit and/or individually. This formation was best for light troops
       and skirmishers. It allowed for rapid movement, especially over
       "broken" or rough terrain such as hills or forests, and offered the
       best protection from enemy fire since the troops were spread out.
       Its disadvantages were it did not allow for massed or volley fire
       and was terrible for melee or close quarters fighting and thus,
       especially vulnerable to cavalry.
     * Square (Carré): Classic infantry formation for defence against
       cavalry. Soldiers would form a hollow square at least three or four
       ranks deep on each side, with officers and artillery or cavalry in
       the middle. It offered infantry their best protection against
       charges, especially on good defensive terrain such as on the top or
       reverse slope of a hill. Squares were slow moving, almost
       stationary targets, however. This, along with their density, made
       squares very vulnerable to artillery and to a lesser extent,
       infantry fire. Once broken, squares tended to completely collapse.
     * Flying Battery (Batterie Volante): Designed to take advantage of
       French artillery's mobility and training. A battery would move to
       one area on the field, lay down a short, sharp barrage, then
       rapidly redeploy to another area and fire another barrage, then
       quickly redeploy again, etc. The combined, cumulative effect of
       numerous batteries doing this all along the enemy's lines could be
       devastating. The horse artillery were especially well suited for
       this tactic. Napoleon used it to great success in the Armée's early
       campaigns. Its flexibility allowed him to quickly mass well-aimed
       fire anywhere it was needed. But it required superbly trained and
       conditioned artillerymen and horses as well as close command,
       coordination and control in order to work.
     * Grand Battery (Grande Batterie): An alternative artillery tactic,
       when circumstances prohibited the flying batteries. Artillery would
       mass its fire at a single, crucial point on the battlefield
       (usually against the enemy's centre). It could be devastating if
       the enemy was caught by surprise or in the open. But massing large
       numbers of guns in a single area without the enemy's knowledge
       could be tricky. Once the batterie opened fire and its target
       became clear, measures could be taken to avoid it. It was also
       vulnerable to Counter-battery fire from enemy artillery and needed
       protection from cavalry attack. Although this has become the most
       well known French artillery tactic, Napoleon preferred the flying
       batteries and used it only when he had to or thought it posed a
       better chance of success. Often at the start of a battle, he would
       mass batteries into a Big Battery, then after a few salvoes, break
       up it up into flying batteries. In the early campaigns it was
       rarely used, but as the quantity of the Armée's horses and quality
       of its artillerymen declined, Bonaparte would be forced to employ
       it much more frequently in later battles.
     * Boar's Head (Tête du Sanglier): Was another hybrid formation,
       somewhat like the mixed order but combining all three arms into a
       wedge-like square, which could be used for assault or defence.
       Infantry would form a short, but thick, line many ranks deep on the
       front, which would be the boar's "snout" (boutoir). Behind them
       would be two groups of artillery batteries or the "eyes" of the
       boar. On their flanks and behind them, in oblique order, would be
       other infantry in column, line or square to form the boar's "face".
       Protecting their flanks and rear would be two groups of cavalry,
       which would serve as the boar's "tusk". This was a highly complex
       formation, which could not be formed as easily or quickly as the
       others. Once formed, except for the tusks, it had slow mobility. It
       was, however, faster moving than the traditional square and less
       vulnerable to artillery or infantry fire. The "tusks" also gave it
       stronger offensive capabilities. It would later be employed to
       great effect during the French conquests in North Africa during the
       1830s and 1840s, and would be used up until the 1920s.

History

1804–1806

   Napoleon distributing the Légion d'honneur at the Boulogne camps, in
   August 1804
   Enlarge
   Napoleon distributing the Légion d'honneur at the Boulogne camps, in
   August 1804

   The Grande Armée was originally formed as L'Armée des côtes de l'Océan
   (Army of the Ocean Coasts) intended for the invasion of England, at the
   port of Boulogne in 1803. Following Napoleon's coronation as Emperor of
   France in 1804, the Third Coalition was formed against him and La
   Grande Armée turned its sights eastwards in 1805. They left the
   Boulogne camps late in August and through a rapid march surrounded
   General Karl Mack's isolated Austrian army at the fortress of Ulm. The
   Ulm Manouver, as it came to be known, resulted in 60,000 Austrian
   captives at the cost of just 2,000 French soldiers. In November Vienna
   was taken, however, Austria refused to capitulate, maintaining an army
   in the field and their Russian allies had not yet been committed to
   action. The war would continue for a while longer. Affairs were
   decisively settled on December 2, 1805 at the Battle of Austerlitz,
   where a numerically inferior Armée routed a combined Russo-Austrian
   army led by Czar Alexander I. The stunning victory led to the Treaty of
   Pressburg on December 26, 1805, with the dissolution of the Holy Roman
   Empire coming the following year.

   The alarming increase of French power in Central Europe disturbed
   Prussia, which had remained neutral in the conflicts of the previous
   year. After much diplomatic wrangling, Prussia secured promises of
   Russian military aid and the Fourth Coalition against France came into
   being in 1806. La Grande Armée advanced into Prussian territory with
   the famed bataillon-carré ("battalion square") system, whereby corps
   marched in close supporting distances and became vanguards, rearguards,
   or flank forces as the situation demanded, and severely defeated the
   Prussian armies at the Battle of Jena and the Battle of Auerstadt, both
   fought on October 14, 1806. After a legendary pursuit, the French had
   captured about 140,000 Prussians and killed and wounded roughly 25,000.
   Davout's III Corps, the victors at Auerstadt, received the honours of
   first marching into Berlin. Once more, the French had defeated an enemy
   before allies could arrive, and once more, this did not bring peace.

1807–1809

   Napoleon now turned his attentions to Poland, where the remaining
   Prussian armies were linking up with their Russian counterparts. A
   difficult winter campaign produced nothing but a stalemate, made worse
   by the Battle of Eylau on February 7- February 8, 1807, where Russian
   and French casualties soared for little gain. The campaign resumed in
   the Spring and this time Bennigsen's Russian army was soundly defeated
   at the Battle of Friedland on June 14, 1807. This victory produced the
   Treaty of Tilsit between France and Russia in July, leaving Napoleon
   with no enemies on the continent.

   Portugal's refusal to comply with the Continental System led to a
   punitive French expedition in late 1807. This campaign formed the basis
   for the Peninsular War, which was to last six years and drain the First
   Empire of vital resources and manpower. The French attempted to occupy
   Spain in 1808, but a series of disasters prompted Napoleon to intervene
   personally later in the year. The 125,000-strong Grande Armée marched
   inexorably forward, capturing the fortress of Burgos, clearing the way
   to Madrid at the Battle of Somosierra, and forcing the Spanish armies
   to retreat. They then hurled themselves towards Moore's British army,
   prompting them to withdraw from the Iberian Peninsula after a heroic
   action at the Battle of Corunna on January 16, 1809. The campaign was
   successful, but it would still be some time before the French were able
   to occupy Southern Spain.

   Meanwhile, a revived Austria was preparing to strike. The War Hawks at
   the court of King Francis I convinced him to take full advantage of
   France's preoccupation with Spain. In April 1809, the Austrians opened
   the campaign without a formal declaration of war and caught the French
   by surprise. They were too slow to exploit their gains, however, and
   Napoleon's arrival from Paris finally stabilized the situation. The
   Austrians were defeated at the Battle of Eckmühl, fled over the Danube,
   and lost the fortress of Ratisbon. But they still remained a cohesive,
   fighting force, which meant further campaigning was required to settle
   the issue. The French captured Vienna and attempted to cross the Danube
   via Lobau island southeast of the Austrian capital, but they lost the
   subsequent Battle of Aspern-Essling, the first defeat for La Grande
   Armée. A second attempt to cross the river proved more successful in
   July and set the stage for the two-day Battle of Wagram, where the
   French emerged victorious, inflicting some 40,000 casualties on the
   Austrians. The defeat demoralized the Austrians so heavily that they
   agreed to an armistice shortly afterwards. This eventually led to the
   Peace of Schönbrunn in October 1809. La Grande Armée had brought the
   Fifth Coalition to an end and the Austrian Empire lost three million
   citizens as a result of the treaty's border changes.

1810–1812

   With the exception of Spain, a three-year lull ensued. Diplomatic
   tensions with Russia, however, became so acute that they eventually led
   to war in 1812. Napoleon assembled the largest army he had ever
   commanded to deal with this menace.

   The new Grande Armée was somewhat different than before; over half of
   its ranks were now filled by non-French conscripts coming from
   satellite states or countries allied to France. The behemoth force
   crossed the Niemen on June 23, 1812, and Napoleon hoped that quick
   marching could place his men between the two main Russian armies,
   commanded by Barclay de Tolly and Bagration. However, the campaign was
   characterized by many frustrations, as the Russians succeeded no less
   than three times in evading Napoleon's pincers. A final stand for the
   defence of Moscow led to the massive Battle of Borodino on September 7,
   1812. There the Armée won a bloody but indecisive and arguably Pyrrhic
   victory. Seven days after Borodino, La Grande Armée entered Moscow only
   to find the city largely empty and ablaze. Its soldiers were now forced
   to deal with the fires while hunting down the arsonists and guarding
   Moscow's historic districts. Napoleon and his army spent over a month
   in Moscow, vainly hoping that the Czar would respond to the French
   peace feelers. After these efforts failed, the French set out on
   October 19, now only a shadow of their former selves. The epic retreat
   over the famous Russian Winter dominates popular conceptions of the
   war, even though over half of the French army had been lost during the
   Summer. The French were harassed repeatedly by the converging Russian
   armies, Ney even conducting a famous rearguard separation between his
   troops and the Russians, and by the time the Berezina was reached
   Napoleon only had about 49,000 troops and 40,000 stragglers of little
   military value. The resulting Battle of Berezina and the monumental
   work of Eble's engineers saved the remnants of the Armée. Napoleon left
   his men in order to reach Paris and address new military and political
   matters. Of the 690,000 men that comprised the initial invasion force,
   only 93,000 survived.

1813–1815

   The catastrophe in Russia now emboldened anti-French sentiments
   throughout Germany and Austria. The Sixth Coalition was formed and
   Germany became the centrepiece of the upcoming campaign. With customary
   genius, Napoleon raised new armies and opened up the campaign with a
   series of victories at the Battle of Lützen and the Battle of Bautzen.
   But due to the poor quality of French cavalry following the Russian
   campaign, along with miscalculations by certain subordinate Marshals,
   these triumphs were not decisive enough to permanently conclude the
   war, and only secured an armistice. Napoleon hoped to use this break to
   increase the quantity and improve the quality of his Armée, but when
   Austria joined the Allies, his strategic situation grew bleak. The
   campaign reopened in August with a significant French victory at the
   two-day Battle of Dresden. However, the adoption of the Trachenburg
   Plan by the Allies, which called for avoiding direct conflict with
   Napoleon and focusing on his subordinates, paid dividends as the French
   suffered defeats at Katzbach, Kulm, Grossbeeren, and Dennewitz. Growing
   Allied numbers eventually hemmed the French in at Leipzig, where the
   famous three-day Battle of the Nations witnessed a heavy loss for
   Napoleon when a bridge was prematurely destroyed, abandoning 30,000
   French soldiers on the other side of the Elster River. The campaign,
   however, did end on a victorious note when the French destroyed an
   isolated Bavarian army which was trying to block their retreat at
   Hanau.

   "The Grand Empire is no more; it is France herself we must now defend"
   were Napoleon's words to the Senate at the end of 1813. The Emperor
   managed to raise new armies, but strategically he was in a virtually
   hopeless position. Allied armies were invading from the Pyrenees,
   across the plains of Northern Italy, and via France's eastern borders
   as well. The campaign began ominously when Napoleon suffered defeat at
   the Battle of La Rothiere, but he quickly regained his former spirit.
   In the Six Days Campaign of February 1814, the 30,000-man French army
   inflicted 20,000 casualties on Blucher's scattered corps at a cost of
   just 2,000 for themselves. They then headed south and defeated
   Schwarzenberg at the Battle of Montereau. These victories, however,
   could not cure such a bad situation, and French defeats at the Battle
   of Laon and the Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube dampened moods. At the end of
   March, Paris fell to the Allies. Napoleon wanted to keep fighting, but
   his marshals refused, forcing the Emperor of France to abdicate on
   April 6, 1814.

   After returning from Elba in February 1815, Napoleon busied himself in
   making a renewed push to secure his Empire. For the first time since
   1812, L'Armée du Nord he would be commanding for the upcoming campaign
   was professional and competent. Napoleon hoped to catch and defeat the
   Allied armies under Wellington and Blucher in Belgium before the
   Russians and Austrians could arrive. The campaign, beginning on June 15
   1815, was initially successful, leading to victory over the Prussians
   at the Battle of Ligny on June 16; however, poor staff work and bad
   commanders led to many problems for the French army throughout the
   entire campaign. Grouchy's delayed advance against the Prussians
   allowed Blucher to rally his men after Ligny and march on to
   Wellington's aid at the Battle of Waterloo, which resulted in the
   final, decisive defeat for Napoleon and his beloved army.

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