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Lothal

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Ancient History,
Classical History and Mythology

   Lothal ( Gujarātī: લોથલ, IPA: /ˈloːtʰəl/, English: Mound of the dead)
   was one of the most prominent cities of the ancient Indus valley
   civilization. Located in the modern state of Gujarāt and dating from
   2400 BCE, it is one of India's most important archaeological site that
   dates from that era. Discovered in 1954, Lothal was excavated from
   February 13, 1955 to May 19, 1960 by the Archaeological Survey of India
   (ASI).

   Lothal's dock—the world's earliest—connected the city to an ancient
   course of the Sabarmati river on the trade route between Harappan
   cities in Sindh and the peninsula of Saurashtra when the surrounding
   Kutch desert of today was a part of the Arabian Sea. It was a vital and
   thriving trade centre in ancient times, with its trade of beads, gems
   and valuable ornaments reaching the far corners of West Asia and
   Africa. Lothal's people were responsible for the earliest-known
   portrayals of realism in art and sculpture, telling some of the most
   well-known fables of today. Its scientists used a shell compass and
   divided the horizon and sky into 8–12 whole parts, possibly pioneering
   the study of stars and advanced navigation—2000 years before the
   Greeks. The techniques and tools they pioneered for bead-making and in
   metallurgy have stood the test of time for over 4000 years.

   Lothal is situated near the village of Saragwala in the Dholka taluka
   of Ahmedabad district. It is at a distance of six kilometres
   (south-east) from the Lothal-Bhurkhi railway station on the Ahmedabad-
   Bhavnagar railway line. It is also connected by all-weather roads to
   the cities of Ahmedabad (85  km/53  mi), Bhavnagar, Rajkot and Dholka.
   Nearest cities are Dholka and Bagodara. Resuming excavation in 1961,
   archaeologists unearthed trenches sunk on the northern, eastern and
   western flanks of the mound, bringing to light the inlet channels and
   nullah ("ravine", or "gully") connecting the dock with the river. The
   findings consist of a mound, a township, a marketplace and the dock.
   Adjacent to the excavated areas stands the Archaeological Museum, where
   some of the most prominent collections of Indus-era antiquities in
   modern India are displayed.

Archaeology

   Extent and major sites of the Indus Valley Civilization.
   Enlarge
   Extent and major sites of the Indus Valley Civilization.

   The meaning of Lothal (a combination of Loth and (s) thal) in Gujarati
   to be the "the mound of the dead" is not unusual, as the name of the
   city of Mohenjodaro in Sindhi means the same. People in villages
   neighbouring to Lothal had known of the presence of an ancient town and
   human remains. As recently as 1850, boats sailed up to the mound, and
   timber was shipped in 1942 from Broach to Saragwala via the mound. A
   silted creek connecting modern Bholad with Lothal and Saragwala
   represents the ancient flow channel of a river or creek. When India was
   partitioned in 1947, most of the sites, including Mohenjodaro and
   Harappa, came to be located in the state of Pakistan. The
   Archaeological Survey of India undertook a new program of exploration,
   and excavated many sites across Gujarat. Between 1954 and 1958, more
   than 50 sites were excavated in the Kutch {see also Dholavira},and
   Saurashtra peninsulas, extending the limits of Harappan civilization by
   500 kilometres (310 mi) to the river Kim, where the Bhagatrav site
   accesses the valley of the rivers Narmada and Tapti. Lothal stands
   270 kilometres (170 mi) from Mohenjodaro, which is in Sindh. It has
   also been speculated that owing to the comparatively small dimensions
   of the main city, Lothal was not a large settlement at all, and its
   "dock" was perhaps an irrigation tank. However, the ASI and other
   contemporary archaeologists assert that the city was a part of a major
   river system on the trade route of the ancient peoples from Sindh to
   Saurashtra in Gujarat. Cemeteries have been found which indicate that
   its people were probably of Dravidian, Proto-Australoid or
   Mediterranean physiques. Lothal provides with the largest collection of
   antiquities in the archaeology of modern India. It is essentially a
   single culture site—the Harappan culture in all its variances is
   evidenced. An indigenous micaceous Red Ware culture also existed, which
   is believed to be autochthonous and pre-Harappan. Two sub-periods of
   Harappan culture are distinguished: the same period (between 2400 and
   1900 BCE) is identical to the exuberant culture of Harappa and
   Mohenjodaro.
   To the northwest of Lothal lies the Kutch { see also
   Dholavira}peninsula, which was a part of the Arabian Sea until very
   recently in history. Owing to this, and the proximity of the Gulf of
   Khambat, Lothal's river provided direct access to sea routes. Although
   now sealed off from the sea, Lothal's topography and geology reflects
   its maritime past.
   Enlarge
   To the northwest of Lothal lies the Kutch { see also
   Dholavira}peninsula, which was a part of the Arabian Sea until very
   recently in history. Owing to this, and the proximity of the Gulf of
   Khambat, Lothal's river provided direct access to sea routes. Although
   now sealed off from the sea, Lothal's topography and geology reflects
   its maritime past.

   After the core of the Indus civilization had decayed in Mohenjodaro and
   Harappa, Lothal seems not only to have survived but to have thrived for
   many years. But its constant threats, tropical storms and floods,
   caused immense destruction, which destabilised the culture and
   ultimately caused its end. Topographical analysis also shows signs that
   at about the time of its demise, the region suffered from aridity or
   weakened monsoon rainfall. Thus the cause for the abandonment of the
   city may have been changes in the climate as well as natural disasters,
   as suggested by environmental magnetic records. Lothal is based upon a
   mound that was a salt marsh inundated by tide. Remote sensing and
   topographical studies published by Indian scientists in the Journal of
   the Indian Geophysicists Union in 2004 revealed an ancient, meandering
   river adjacent to Lothal, 30 kilometres (19 mi) in length according to
   satellite imagery—an ancient extension of the northern river channel
   bed of a tributary of the Bhogavo river. Small channel widths
   (10–300 m/30–1000 ft) when compared to the lower reaches
   (1.2–1.6 km/0.75–1.0 mi) suggest the presence of a strong tidal
   influence upon the city—tidal waters ingressed up to and beyond the
   city. Upstream elements of this river provided a suitable source of
   freshwater for the inhabitants.

History

   Before the arrival of Harappan peoples (c. 2400 BCE), Lothal was a
   small village next to the river providing access to the mainland from
   the Gulf of Khambhat. The indigenous peoples maintained a prosperous
   economy, attested by the discovery of copper objects, beads and
   semi-precious stones. Ceramic wares were of fine clay and smooth,
   micaceous red surface. A new technique of firing pottery under
   partly-oxidising and reducing conditions was improved by
   them—designated black-and-red ware, to the micaceous Red Ware.
   Harappans were attracted to Lothal for its sheltered harbour, rich
   cotton and rice-growing environment and bead-making industry. The beads
   and gems of Lothal were in great demand in the west. The settlers lived
   peacefully with the Red Ware people, who adopted their
   lifestyle—evidenced from the flourishing trade and changing working
   techniques—Harappans began producing the indigenous ceramic goods,
   adopting the manner from the natives.

Town planning

   A flood destroyed village foundations and settlements (c. 2350 BCE).
   Harappans based around Lothal and from Sindh took this opportunity to
   expand their settlement and create a planned township on the lines of
   greater cities in the Indus valley. Lothal planners engaged themselves
   to protect the area from consistent floods. The town was divided into
   blocks of 1–2-metre-high (3–6 ft) platforms of sun-dried bricks, each
   serving 20–30 houses of thick mud and brick walls. The city was divided
   into a citadel, or acropolis and a lower town. The rulers of the town
   lived in the acropolis, which featured paved baths, underground and
   surface drains (built of kiln-fired bricks) and a potable water well.
   The lower town was subdivided into two sectors — the north-south
   arterial street was the main commercial area — flanked by shops of rich
   and ordinary merchants and craftsmen. The residential area was located
   to either side of the marketplace. The lower town was also periodically
   enlarged during Lothal's years of prosperity.

   Lothal engineers accorded high priority to the creation of a dockyard
   and a warehouse to serve the purposes of naval trade. While the
   consensus view amongst archaeologists identifies this structure as a
   "dockyard," it has also been suggested that owing to small dimensions,
   this basin may have been an irrigation tank and canal. The dock was
   built on the eastern flank of the town, and is regarded by
   archaeologists as an engineering feat of the highest order. It was
   located away from the main current of the river to avoid silting, but
   provided access to ships in high tide as well. The warehouse was built
   close to the acropolis on a 3.5- metre-high (10.5 ft) podium of mud
   bricks. The rulers could thus supervise the activity on the dock and
   warehouse simultaneously. Facilitating the movement of cargo was a
   mud-brick wharf, 220 metres (720  ft) long, built on the western arm of
   the dock, with a ramp leading to the warehouse. There was an important
   public building opposite to the warehouse whose superstructure has
   completely disappeared. Throughout their time, the city had to brace
   itself through multiple floods and storms. Dock and city peripheral
   walls were maintained efficiently. The town's zealous rebuilding
   ensured the growth and prosperity of the trade. However, with rising
   prosperity, Lothal's people failed to upkeep their walls and dock
   facilities, possibly as a result of over-confidence in their systems. A
   flood of moderate intensity in 2050 BCE exposed some serious weaknesses
   in the structure, but the problems were not addressed properly.

Economy and urban culture

   An ancient well, and the city drainage canals.
   Enlarge
   An ancient well, and the city drainage canals.

   The uniform organization of the town and its institutions give evidence
   that the Harappans were a very disciplined people. Commerce and
   administrative duties were performed according to standards laid out.
   Municipal administration was strict — the width of most streets
   remained the same over a long time, and no encroached structures were
   built. Householders possessed a sump, or collection chamber to deposit
   solid waste in order to prevent the clogging of city drains. Drains,
   manholes and cesspools kept the city clean and deposited the waste in
   the river, which was washed out during high tide. A new provincial
   style of Harappan art and painting was pioneered — new approaches
   included realistic portrayals of animals in their natural surroundings,
   including the portrayal of stories and folklore. Fire-altars were built
   in public places. Metalware, gold and jewellery and tastefully
   decorated ornaments attest to the culture and prosperity of the people
   of Lothal.

   Most of their equipment—metal tools, weights, measures, seals,
   earthenware and ornaments—were of the uniform standard and quality
   found across the Indus civilization. Lothal was a major trade centre,
   importing en masse raw materials like copper, chert and semi-precious
   stones from Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, and mass distributing to inner
   villages and towns. It also produced large quantities of bronze celts,
   fish-hooks, chisels, spears and ornaments. Lothal exported its beads,
   gemstones, ivory and shells. The stone blade industry catered to
   domestic needs—fine chert was imported from the Sukkur valley or from
   Bijapur in modern Karnataka. Bhagatrav supplied semi-precious stones
   while chank shell came from Dholavira and Bet Dwarka. An intensive
   trade network gave the inhabitants great prosperity—it stretched across
   the frontiers to Egypt, Bahrain and Sumer.

Declining years

   The bathroom-toilet structure of houses in Lothal.
   Enlarge
   The bathroom-toilet structure of houses in Lothal.

   While the wider debate over the end of Indus civilization continues,
   archaeological evidence gathered by the ASI appears to point to natural
   catastrophes, specifically floods and storms as the source of Lothal's
   downfall. A powerful flood submerged the town and destroyed most of the
   houses, with the walls and platforms heavily damaged. The acropolis and
   the residence of the ruler were levelled (2000-1900 BCE), and inhabited
   by common tradesmen and newly built makeshift houses. The worst
   consequence was the shift in the course of the river, cutting off
   access to the ships and dock. Despite the ruler leaving the city, the
   leaderless people built a new but shallow inlet to connect the flow
   channel to the dock for sluicing small ships into the basin. Large
   ships were moored away. Houses were rebuilt, yet without removal of
   flood debris, which made them poor-quality and susceptible to further
   damage. Public drains were replaced by soakage jars. The citizens did
   not undertake encroachments, and rebuilt public baths and maintained
   fire worship. However, with a poorly organised government, and no
   outside agency or central government, the public works could not be
   properly repaired or maintained. The heavily damaged warehouse was
   never repaired properly, and stocks were stored in wooden canopies,
   exposed to floods and fire. The economy of the city was transformed.
   Trade volumes reduced greatly, though not catastrophically, and
   resources were available in lesser quantities. Independent businesses
   caved, allowing a merchant-centric system of factories to develop where
   hundreds of craftsmen worked for the same supplier and financier. The
   bead factory had ten living rooms and a large workplace courtyard. The
   coppersmith's workshop had five furnaces and paved sinks to enable
   multiple artisans to work.

   The declining prosperity of the town, paucity of resources and poor
   administration increased the woes of a people pressured by consistent
   floods and storms. Increased salinity of soil made the land
   inhospitable to life, including crops. This is evidenced in adjacent
   cities of Rangpur, Rojdi, Rupar and Harappa in Punjab, Mohenjo-daro and
   Chanhudaro in Sindh. A massive flood (c. 1900 BCE) completely destroyed
   the flagging township in a single stroke. Archaeological analysis shows
   that the basin and dock were sealed with silt and debris, and the
   buildings razed to the ground. The flood affected the entire region of
   Saurashtra, Sindh and south Gujarat, and affected the upper reaches of
   the Indus and Sutlej, where scores of villages and townships were
   washed away. The population fled to inner regions.

Later Harappan culture

   Archaeological site of Lothal.
   Archaeological site of Lothal.

   Archaeological evidence shows that the site continued to be inhabited,
   albeit by a much smaller population devoid of urban influences. The few
   people who returned to Lothal could not reconstruct and repair their
   city, but surprisingly continued to stay and preserved religious
   traditions, living in poorly-built houses and reed huts. That they were
   the Harappan peoples is evidenced by the analyses of their remains in
   the cemetery. While the trade and resources of the city were almost
   entirely gone, the people retained several Harappan ways in writing,
   pottery and utensils. About this time ASI archaeologists record a mass
   movement of refugees from Punjab and Sindh into Saurashtra and to the
   valley of Sarasvati (1900-1700 BCE). Hundreds of ill-equipped
   settlements have been attributed to this people as Late Harappans—a
   completely de-urbanised culture characterised by rising illiteracy,
   undiversified economy, unsophisticated administration and poverty.
   Though Indus seals went out of use, the system of weights with an
   8.573  gram (0.3024  oz) unit was retained. Between 1700 and 1600 BCE,
   trade would revive again. In Lothal, Harappan ceramic works of bowls,
   dishes and jars were mass-produced. Merchants used local materials such
   as chalcedony instead of chert for stone blades. Truncated sandstone
   weights replaced hexahedron chert weights. The sophisticated writing
   was simplified by exempting pictorial symbols, and the painting style
   reduced itself to wavy lines, loops and fronds.

Civilisation

   The people of Lothal made significant and often unique contributions to
   human civilization in the Indus era, in the fields of city planning,
   art, architecture, science, engineering and religion. Their work in
   metallurgy, seals, beads and jewellery was the basis of their
   prosperity.

Science and engineering

   A block of bricks placed in the main drainage canal with four holes,
   from which the net to filter out solid waste was installed.
   Enlarge
   A block of bricks placed in the main drainage canal with four holes,
   from which the net to filter out solid waste was installed.

   A thick ring-like shell object found with four slits each in two
   margins served as a compass to measure angles on plane surfaces or in
   the horizon in multiples of 40 degrees, up to 360 degrees. Such shell
   instruments were probably invented to measure 8–12 whole sections of
   the horizon and sky, explaining the slits on the lower and upper
   margins. Archaeologists consider this as evidence that the Lothal
   experts had achieved something 2,000 years before the Greeks: an 8–12
   fold division of horizon and sky, as well as an instrument for
   measuring angles and perhaps the position of stars, and for navigation.
   Lothal contributes one of three measurement scales that are integrated
   and linear (others found in Harappa and Mohenjodaro). An ivory scale
   from Lothal has the smallest-known decimal divisions in Indus
   civilization. The scale is 6 millimetres (0.2 in) thick, 15 mm (0.6 in)
   broad and the available length is 128 mm (5.0 in), but only 27
   graduations are visible over 46 mm (1.8 in), the distance between
   graduation lines being 1.70 mm (0.067 in) (the small size indicates use
   for fine purposes). The sum total of ten graduations from Lothal is
   approximate to the angula in the Arthashastra. The Lothal craftsmen
   took care to ensure durability and accuracy of stone weights by
   blunting edges before polishing.

   For their renowned draining system, Lothal engineers provided corbelled
   roofs, and an apron of kiln-fired bricks over the brick face of the
   platform where the sewerage entered the cesspool. Wooden screens
   inserted in grooves in the side drain walls held back solid waste. The
   well is built of radial bricks, 2.4 metres (7.9 ft) in diameter and
   6.7 metres (22 ft) deep. It had an immaculate network of underground
   drains, silting chambers and cesspools, and inspection chambers for
   solid waste. The extent of drains provided archaeologists with many
   clues regarding the layout of streets, organization of housing and
   baths. On average, the main sewer is 20–46 cm (7.8–18.1 in) in depth,
   with outer dimensions of 86 × 68 × 33 cm (34 × 27 × 13 in). Lothal
   brick-makers used a logical approach in manufacture of bricks, designed
   with care in regards to thickness of structures. They were used as
   headers and stretchers in same and alternate layers. Archaeologists
   estimate that in most cases, the bricks were in ratio 1:0.5:0.25 on
   three sides, in dimensions which were integral multiples of large
   graduations of Lothal scale of 25 mm (1.0 in).

Religion and disposal of the dead

   The people of Lothal worshipped a fire god, speculated to be the horned
   deity depicted on seals named Atha (Athar) and Arka, which is also
   evidenced by the presence of private and public fire-altars where
   sacrifices of animals and cattle were apparently conducted.
   Archaeologists have discovered gold pendants, charred ashes of
   terra-cotta cakes and pottery, bovine remains, beads and other signs
   that may indicate the practice of the Gavamayana sacrifice, associated
   with the ancient Vedic religion. Animal worship is also evidenced, but
   not the worship of the Mother Goddess that is evidenced in other
   Harappan cities—experts consider this a sign of the existence of
   diversity in religious traditions. However, it is believed that a sea
   goddess, perhaps cognate with the general Indus-era Mother Goddess, was
   worshipped. Today, the local villagers likewise worship a sea goddess,
   Vanuvati Sikotarimata, suggesting a connection with the ancient port's
   traditions and historical past as an access to the sea.

   At least one case of joint burial of a man and a woman has been found
   in Lothal. Indian archaeologists suggested the possibility of the
   earliest known practice of sati, or widow immolation. But the
   archaeologists also discovered that the practice had been given up by
   2000 BCE (determined by the difference in burial times of the
   carbon-dated remains). It is suggested that the practice occurred only
   on occasion. It is also considered that given the small number of
   graves discovered—only 17 in an estimated population of 15,000—the
   citizens of Lothal also practiced cremation of the dead. Post-cremation
   burials have been noted in other Indus sites like Harappa, Mehi and
   Damb-Bhuti. The mummified remains of an Assyrian and an Egyptian corpse
   were also discovered at the mound.

Metallurgy and jewellery

   A carved stone tool, possibly a chisel-head.
   Enlarge
   A carved stone tool, possibly a chisel-head.

   Lothali copper is unusually pure, lacking the arsenic typically used by
   coppersmiths across the rest of the Indus valley. The city imported
   ingots from probable sources in the Arabian peninsula. Workers mixed
   tin with copper for the manufacture of celts, arrowheads, fishhooks,
   chisels, bangles, rings, drills and spearheads, although weapon
   manufacturing was minor. They also employed advanced metallurgy in
   following the cire perdue technique of casting, and used more than
   one-piece moulds for casting birds and animals. They also invented new
   tools such as curved saws and twisted drills unknown to other
   civilizations at the time.

   Lothal was one of the most important centres of production for
   shell-working, owing to the abundance of chank shell of high quality
   found in the Gulf of Kutch and near the Kathiawar coast Gamesmen,
   beads, unguent vessels, chank shells, ladles and inlays were made for
   export and local consumption. Components of stringed musical
   instruments like the plectrum and the bridge were made of shell. An
   ivory workshop was operated under strict official supervision, and the
   domestication of elephants has been suggested. An ivory seal, and sawn
   pieces for boxes, combs, rods, inlays and ear-studs were found during
   excavations. Lothal produced a large quantity of gold ornaments—the
   most attractive item being microbeads of gold in five strands in
   necklaces, unique for being less than 0.25 millimetres (0.010 in) in
   diameter. Cylindrical, globular and jasper beads of gold with edges at
   right angles resemble modern pendants used by women in Gujarat in
   plaits of hair. A large disc with holes recovered from a sacrificial
   altar is compared to the rukma worn by Vedic priests. Studs, cogwheel
   and heart-shaped ornaments of fainence and steatite were popular in
   Lothal. A ring of thin copper wire turned into double spirals resembles
   the gold-wire rings used by modern Hindus for weddings.

Art

   Pieces of red clay pottery.
   Enlarge
   Pieces of red clay pottery.

   The discovery of etched carnelian beads and non-etched barrel beads in
   Kish and Ur (modern Iraq), Jalalabad (Afghanistan) and Susa (Iran)
   attest to the popularity of the Lothal-centric bead industry across
   West Asia. The lapidaries show a refined taste in selecting stones of
   variegated colours, producing beads of different shapes and sizes. The
   methods of Lothal bead-makers were so advanced that no improvements
   have been noted over 4,000 years—modern makers in the Khambhat area
   follow the same technique. Double-eye beads of agate and collared or
   gold-capped beads of jasper and carnelian beads are among those
   attributed as uniquely from Lothal. It was very famous for
   micro-cylindrical beads of steatite (chlorite).

   Lothal has yielded 213 seals, third in importance amongst all Indus
   sites, considered masterpieces of glyptic art and calligraphy.
   Seal-cutters preferred short-horned bulls, mountain goats, tigers and
   composite animals like the elephant-bull for engravings. There is a
   short inscription of intaglio in almost every seal. Stamp seals with
   copper rings inserted in a perforated button were used to sealing
   cargo, with impressions of packing materials like mats, twisted cloth
   and cords—a fact verified only at Lothal. Quantitative descriptions,
   seals of rulers and owners were stamped on goods. A unique seal found
   here is from Bahrain—circular, with motif of a dragon flanked by
   jumping gazelles.

   Lothal offers two new types of potter work—a convex bowl with or
   without stud handle, and a small jar with flaring rim, both in the
   micaceous Red Ware period—not found in contemporary Indus cultures.
   Lothal artists introduced a new form of painting closely linked to
   modern realism. Paintings depict animals in their natural surroundings.
   Indeed, upon one large vessel, the artist depicts birds—with fish in
   their beaks—resting in a tree, while a fox-like animal stands below.
   This scene bears resemblance to the story of the crow and cunning fox
   in Panchatantra. Artistic imagination is also suggested via careful
   portrayals—for example, several birds with legs aloft in the sky
   suggest flight, while half-opened wings suggest imminent flight. On a
   miniature jar, the story of the thirsty crow and deer is depicted—of
   how the deer could not drink from the narrow-mouth of the jar, while
   the crow succeeded by dropping stones in the jar. The features of the
   animals are clear and graceful. Movements and emotions are suggested by
   the positioning of limbs and facial features—in a 15 × 5 cm (6 × 2 in)
   jar without overcrowding.

   A complete set of terra-cotta gamesmen, comparable to modern chessmen,
   has been found in Lothal—animal figures, pyramids with ivory handles
   and castle-like objects (similar to the chess set of Queen Hatshepsut
   in Egypt). The realistic portrayal of human beings and animals suggests
   a careful study of anatomical and natural features. The bust of a male
   with slit eyes, sharp nose and square-cut beard is reminiscent of
   Sumerian figures, especially stone sculptures from Mari. In images of
   men and women, muscular and physical features are sharp, prominently
   marked. Terra-cotta models also identify the differences between
   species of dogs and bulls, including those of horses. Animal figures
   with wheels and a movable head were used as toys.

Excavated Lothal

   The dock, with a canal opening to allow water to flow into the river,
   thereby maintaining a stable water level.
   Enlarge
   The dock, with a canal opening to allow water to flow into the river,
   thereby maintaining a stable water level.

   On plan, Lothal stands 285 metres (935 ft) north-to-south and
   228 metres (748 ft) east-to-west. At the height of its habitation, it
   covered a wider area since remains have been found 300 metres (1000 ft)
   south of the mound. Due to the fragile nature of unbaked bricks and
   frequent floods, the superstructures of all buildings have receded.
   Dwarfed walls, platforms, wells, drains, baths and paved floors are
   visible. But thanks to the loam deposited by persistent floods, the
   dock walls were preserved beyond the great deluge (c. 1900 BCE). The
   absence of standing high walls is attributed to erosion and brick
   robbery. The ancient nullah, the inlet channel and riverbed have been
   similarly covered up. The flood-damaged peripheral wall of mud-bricks
   is visible near the warehouse area. The remnants of the north-south
   sewer are burnt bricks in the cesspool. Cubical blocks of the warehouse
   on a high platform are also visible.

   The ASI has covered the peripheral walls, the wharf and many houses of
   the early phase with earth to protect from natural phenomena, but the
   entire archaeological site is nevertheless facing grave concerns about
   necessary preservation. Salinity ingress and prolonged exposure to the
   rain and sun are gradually eating away the remains of the site. But
   there are no barricades to prevent the stream of visitors from trudging
   on the delicate brick and mud work. Stray dogs throng the mound
   unhindered. Heavy rain in the region has damaged the remains of the
   sun-dried mud brick constructions. Stagnant rain water has lathered the
   brick and mud work with layers of moss. Due to siltation, the
   dockyard’s draft has been reduced by 3–4 metres (10–13 ft) and saline
   deposits are decaying the bricks. Officials blame the salinity on
   capillary action and point out that cracks are emerging and foundations
   weakening even as restoration work slowly progresses.

Dock and warehouse

   The main well.
   Enlarge
   The main well.

   The dock was located away from the main current to avoid deposition of
   silt. Modern oceanographers have observed that the Harappans must have
   possessed great knowledge relating to tides in order to build such a
   dock on the ever-shifting course of the Sabarmati, as well as exemplary
   hydrography and maritime engineering. This was the earliest known dock
   found in the world, equipped to berth and service ships. It is
   speculated that Lothal engineers studied tidal movements, and their
   effects on brick-built structures, since the walls are of kiln-burnt
   bricks. This knowledge also enabled them to select Lothal's location in
   the first place, as the Gulf of Khambhat has the highest tidal
   amplitude and ships can be sluiced through flow tides in the river
   estuary. The engineers built a trapezoidal structure, with north-south
   arms of average 21.8 metres (71.5 ft), and east-west arms of 37 metres
   (121 ft). Another assessment is that the basin could have served as an
   irrigation tank, for the estimated original dimensions of the "dock"
   are not large enough, by modern standards, to house ships and conduct
   much traffic.

   The original height of the embankments was 4.26 metres (13.98 ft). (Now
   it is 3.35 metres (10.99 ft).) The main inlet is 12.8 metres (42.0 ft)
   wide, and another is provided on the opposite side. To counter the
   thrust of water, offsets were provided on the outer wall faces. When
   the river changed its course in 2000 BCE, a smaller inlet, 7 metres
   (23 ft) wide was made in the longer arm, connected to the river by a
   2 kilometre (3.2 mi) channel. At high tide a flow of 2.1–2.4 metres
   (6.9–7.9 ft) of water would have allowed ships to enter. Provision was
   made for the escape of excess water through the outlet channel,
   96.5 metres (317 ft) wide and 1.7 metres (5.6 ft) high in the southern
   arm. The dock also possessed a lock-gate system—a wooden door could be
   lowered at the mouth of the outlet to retain a minimum column of water
   in the basin so as to ensure floatation at low tides. Central to the
   city's economy, the warehouse was originally built on sixty-four
   cubical blocks, 3.6 metres (11.8 ft) square, with 1.2-metre (3.9-ft)
   passages, and based on a 3.5-metre-high (11.5 ft) mud-brick podium. The
   pedestal was very high to provide maximum protection from floods.
   Brick-paved passages between blocks served as vents, and a direct ramp
   led to the dock to facilitate loading. The warehouse was located close
   to the acropolis, to allow tight supervision by ruling authorities.
   Despite elaborate precautions, the major floods that brought the city's
   decline destroyed all but twelve blocks, which became the make-shift
   storehouse.

Acropolis and Lower town

   Lothal's acropolis was the town centre, its political and commercial
   heart, measuring 127.4 metres (418 ft) east-to-west by 60.9 metres
   (200 ft) north-to-south. Apart from the warehouse, it was the residence
   of the ruling class. There were three streets and two lanes running
   east-west, and two streets running north-south. The four sides of the
   rectangular platform on which houses were built are formed by mud-brick
   structures of 12.2–24.4 metre (40–80 ft) thickness and 2.1–3.6 metres
   (6.9–11.8 ft) high. The baths were primarily located in the
   acropolis—mostly two-roomed houses with open courtyards. The bricks
   used for paving baths were polished to prevent seepage. The pavements
   were lime-plastered and edges were wainscoted (wooden panels) by thin
   walls. The ruler's residence is 43.92 square metres (472.8 sq ft) in
   area with a 1.8-square-meter-bath (19 sq ft) equipped with an outlet
   and inlet. The remains of this house give evidence to a sophisticated
   drainage system. The Lower town marketplace was on the main north-south
   street 6–8 metres (20–26 ft) wide. Built in straight rows on either
   side of the street are residences and workshops, although brick-built
   drains and early period housing has disappeared. The street maintained
   a uniform width and did not undergo encroachment during the
   reconstructive periods after deluges. There are multiple two-roomed
   shops and workplaces of coppersmiths and blacksmiths.

   The bead factory, which performs a very important economic function,
   possesses a central courtyard and eleven rooms, a store and a
   guardhouse. There is a cinder dump, as well as a double-chambered
   circular kiln, with stoke-holes for fuel supply. Four flues are
   connected with each other, the upper chamber and the stoke hold. The
   mud plaster of the floors and walls are vitrified owing to intense heat
   during work. The remnants of raw materials such as reed, cow dung,
   sawdust and agate are found, giving archaeologists hints of how the
   kiln was operated. A large mud-brick building faces the factory, and
   its significance is noted by its plan. Four large rooms and a hall,
   with an overall measurement of 17.1 × 12.8 metres (56 × 42 ft). The
   hall has a large doorway, and a fire-altar is posed on a raised floor
   in the southern corner of the building. A square terra-cotta stump in
   the centre is associated with the place of worship found in the sister
   site of Kalibangan (in Rajasthan), making this a primary centre of
   worship for Lothal's people.
   Retrieved from " http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothal"
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