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Military history of Puerto Rico

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Military History and War

   Puerto Rico
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   Puerto Rico

   The recorded military history of Puerto Rico encompasses the period
   from the 16th century, when Spanish conquistadores battled native
   Tainos, to the present employment of Puerto Ricans in the United States
   Armed Forces in the military campaigns in Afghanistan and Iraq.

   Puerto Rico was part of the Spanish Empire for four centuries, when the
   Puerto Ricans defended themselves against invasions from the British,
   French, and Dutch. During the mid-19th century, the quest for Latin
   American independence from Spain spread to Puerto Rico, culminating in
   the failed revolution known as El Grito de Lares. The island was
   invaded by the United States during the Spanish-American War; the war
   ended when Spain officially ceded the island under the 1898 Treaty of
   Paris. Puerto Rico became a United States territory and a military
   regiment known as the Porto Rico Regiment was established on the
   island.

   As citizens of the United States, Puerto Ricans have participated in
   every major United States military engagement from World War I, with
   Puerto Rico's 65th Infantry Regiment distinguishing themselves in
   combat during the Korean War.

Conflict with the Tainos

   Christopher Columbus discovered the island of Puerto Rico on November
   19, 1493 during his second voyage to the New World. The island was
   inhabited by the Arawak group of indigenous peoples known as Tainos,
   who called the island "Boriken" or "Borinquen". Columbus named the
   island San Juan Bautista in honour of Saint John the Baptist. The main
   port was named Puerto Rico (Rich Port) (eventually the island was
   renamed Puerto Rico and the port which was to evolve into the capital
   of the island was renamed San Juan). The conquistador Juan Ponce de
   León accompanied Columbus on this trip.
   Cacique Agüeybaná greeting Juan Ponce de León
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   Cacique Agüeybaná greeting Juan Ponce de León

   When Ponce de León arrived in Puerto Rico, he was well received by the
   cacique Agüeybaná, chieftain of the island Taino tribes. Besides the
   conquistadors, some of the first colonists were farmers and miners in
   search of gold. In 1508, Ponce de León became the first appointed
   governor of Puerto Rico, founding the first settlement of Caparra
   between the modern-day cities of Bayamón and San Juan. After being
   named Governor, de León and the conquistadors forced the Tainos to work
   in the mines and to build fortifications; many Tainos died as a result
   of cruel treatment during their labor. In 1510, Agüeybaná II
   (Agüeybaná's brother) and a group of Tainos led Diego Salcedo, a
   Spaniard, to a river and drowned him, proving to his people that the
   white men were not gods. Upon realizing this, Agüeybaná led the first
   island rebellion against the better armed Spanish forces. The colonists
   formed a citizens' militia to defend themselves against the attacks.
   Agüeybaná II was shot and killed, ending the first recorded military
   action in Puerto Rico.

Europeans fight over Puerto Rico

   El Morro, Puerto Rico's main military fortification
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   El Morro, Puerto Rico's main military fortification

   Puerto Rico was considered the "Key to the Antilles" by the Spanish
   because of its location as a way station and port for Spanish vessels.
   In 1540, with revenue from Mexican mines, the Spanish settlers began
   the construction of Fort San Felipe del Morro ("the promontory") in San
   Juan. With the completion of the initial phase of the construction in
   1589 El Morro became the island's main military fortification, guarded
   by professional soldiers. The rest of Puerto Rico had to rely on only a
   handful of soldiers and the local volunteer militia to defend the
   island against militant and pirate attacks.

The English

   In 1585, war broke out between England and Spain. The Anglo-Spanish War
   was not limited to Europe—extending to Spanish and English territories
   in the Americas. On November 22, 1595, Sir Francis Drake, the
   vice-admiral in command of the Royal Navy that overcame the Spanish
   Armada, and Sir John Hawkins attempted an invasion of the island with
   26 vessels. Unable to take the island, Drake set San Juan on fire. In
   1596, Drake died of dysentery after another unsuccessful attack on San
   Juan. On June 15, 1598, the British fleet, led by George Clifford,
   landed in Santurce and held the island for several months. He was
   forced to abandon the island upon an outbreak of bacillary dysentery
   among his troops. In 1599, 400 additional soldiers and 46 cannons were
   sent to the island along with a new governor, Alonso de Mercado, to
   rebuild the city.
   Captain Antonio de los Reyes Correa, militia commander and national
   hero
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   Captain Antonio de los Reyes Correa, militia commander and national
   hero

   The British continued their attacks against Spanish colonies in the
   Caribbean, taking minor islands including Vieques east of Puerto Rico.
   On August 5, 1702, the city of Arecibo, on Puerto Rico's northern
   coast, was invaded by the British. Armed only with spears and machetes,
   under the command of Captain Antonio de los Reyes Correa, 30 militia
   members defended the city from the British, who were armed with muskets
   and swords. The British were defeated, suffering 22 losses on land and
   8 at sea. Reyes Correa was declared a national hero and was awarded the
   Medalla de Oro de la Real Efigie ("Gold Medal of the Royal Image") and
   the title of "Captain of Infantry" by King Philip V.

   Native-born Puerto Rican (criollos) had petitioned the Spanish Crown to
   serve in the regular Spanish army, resulting in the 1741 organization
   of the Regimiento Fijo de Puerto Rico. The Fijo served in the defense
   of Puerto Rico and other Spanish overseas possessions, performing in
   battles in Santo Domingo, other islands in the Caribbean, and South
   America, most notably in Venezuela. However, Puerto Rican complaints
   that the Fijo was being used to suppress the revolution in Venezuela
   caused the Crown to bring the Fijo home and in 1815 it was mustered out
   of service.

   In 1765, the Spanish Crown sent Field Marshall Alejandro O'Reilly to
   Puerto Rico to form an organized militia. O'Reilly, known as the
   "Father of the Puerto Rican Militia", oversaw training to bring fame
   and glory to the militia in future military engagements, nicknaming the
   civilian militia the "Disciplined Militia." O'Reilly was later
   appointed governor of colonial Louisiana in 1769 and became known as
   "Bloody O'Reilly."
   General Bernardo de Gálvez, general of the Spanish colonial army in
   North America
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   General Bernardo de Gálvez, general of the Spanish colonial army in
   North America

   During the American Revolutionary War, Spain lent the rebelling
   colonists the use of its ports in Puerto Rico, through which flowed
   financial aid and arms for their cause. Puerto Rican volunteers fought
   the British, alongside the Continental Army, in the Battle of Bunker
   Hill in 1775, under the command of Captain General Torre. An incident
   occurred in the coast of Mayagüez, in 1777, between two Continental
   Navy ships, the Eudawook and the Henry, and a Royal Navy warship, the
   HMS Glasgow. Both American ships were chased by the larger and more
   powerful Glasgow. The American ships were close to the coast of
   Mayagüez; members of the Puerto Rican militia of that town, realizing
   that something was wrong, signaled for the ships to dock at the town's
   bay. After the ships docked, the crews of both ships got off and some
   Mayagüezanos boarded and raised the Spanish flag on both ships. The
   commander of the Glasgow became aware of the situation and asked the
   island's governor, Jose Dufresne to turn over the ships. Dufresne
   refused and ordered the English warship out of the Puerto Rican dock.

   The governor of Louisiana, Bernardo de Gálvez, was named general of the
   Spanish colonial army in North America. In 1779, Galvez and his troops,
   composed of Puerto Ricans and other Hispanic groups, distracted the
   British from the revolution by capturing the cities of Baton Rouge,
   Mobile, Pensacola and St. Louis. Galvez and his troops also provided
   the Continental Army with guns, cloth, gunpowder and medicine shipped
   from Cuba up the Mississippi River.

   On February 17, 1797, the appointed governor of Puerto Rico, brigadier
   general Ramón de Castro, received the news that England had invaded the
   island of Trinidad. Believing that Puerto Rico would be the next
   British objective he decided to put the local militia on alert and to
   prepare the island's forts against any military action. On April 17,
   1797, British ships under the command of Sir Ralph Abercromby
   approached the coastal town of Loíza, to the east of San Juan. On April
   18, British soldiers and German mercenaries (" Hessians") landed on
   Loíza's beach. Under the command of de Castro, British ships were
   attacked with artillery and mortar fire from both El Morro and the San
   Gerónimo fortresses. The British twice tried to take the Martín Peña
   Bridge, a key passage to the San Juan islet, but after fiercely
   fighting the Spanish forces and local militia, were defeated in both
   attempts. The invasion failed because a total of 16,000 Puerto Rican
   volunteers and Spanish troops fought back and defended the island. The
   British also attacked Aguadilla and Punta Salinas, but they were
   defeated, and the British troops that had landed on the island were
   taken prisoner. The British retreated on April 30 to their ships and on
   May 2 set sail northward. Because of the defeat given to the British
   forces, governor Ramon de Castro petitioned Spanish King Charles IV for
   recognition for the victors; he was promoted to Field Marshal and
   several others were promoted and given pay raises.

   After Abercromby's defeat the British persisted in invading Puerto Rico
   with unsuccessful skirmishes on the coastal towns of Aguadilla
   (December 1797), Ponce, Cabo Rojo, and Mayagüez until 1802 when the war
   finally came to an end.
   Captain Miguel Henriquez
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   Captain Miguel Henriquez

   While Spain and Britain were in a power struggle in the New World,
   Puerto Rican privateering of British ships was encouraged by the
   Spanish Crown. Captains Miguel Henriquez and Roberto Cofresi were two
   of the most famous pirates. In the latter half of the 17th century,
   Henriquez, a shoemaker by occupation, decided to try his luck as a
   pirate. He showed great valor in intercepting English merchant ships
   and other ships dedicated to contraband that were infesting the seas of
   Puerto Rico and the Atlantic Ocean in general. Miguel Henriquez
   organized an expeditionary force which fought and defeated the British
   in the island of Vieques. Henriquez was received as a national hero
   when he returned the island of Vieques to the Spanish Empire and to the
   governorship of Puerto Rico. In recognition of his service, the Spanish
   Crown awarded Henriquez the Medalla de Oro de la Real Efigie (The Gold
   Medal of the Royal Image), named him "Captain of the Seas and Land",
   and gave him a letter of marque and reprisal thus granting him the
   privileges of privateer.

   In the case of Captain Roberto Cofresi, the Spanish government received
   many complaints from the nations whose ships he attacked. Cofresi and
   his men attacked eight ships, amongst them an American ship. The
   Spanish government, which routinely encouraged piracy against other
   nations, was pressured and felt obliged to pursue and capture the
   famous pirate. In 1824, Captain John Slout of the U.S. Naval Forces and
   his schooner "Grampus" engaged Cofresi in a fierce battle. The pirate
   Cofresi was captured, along with eleven of his crew members, and turned
   over to the Spanish Government. He was imprisoned in El Castillo del
   Morro in San Juan. Cofresi was judged by a Spanish Council of War,
   found guilty, and executed by firing squad on March 29, 1825.

The Dutch

   The Netherlands was a world military and commercial power by 1625,
   competing in the Caribbean with the British. The Dutch wanted to
   establish a military stronghold in the area, and dispatched Captain
   Balduino Enrico (Boudewijn Hendricksz) to capture Puerto Rico. On
   September 24, 1625, Enrico arrived at the coast of San Juan with 17
   ships and 2,000 men. The governor of Puerto Rico, Juan de Haros, was an
   experienced military man and, expecting an attack in the section known
   as Boqueron, had that area fortified. However, the Dutch took another
   route and landed in La Puntilla.
   La Fortaleza, Puerto Rico's governor mansion
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   La Fortaleza, Puerto Rico's governor mansion

   De Haro realized that an invasion was inevitable and ordered 300 men
   stationed at El Morro Castle and the city of San Juan evacuated. He
   also had former governor Juan de Vargas organize an armed resistance in
   the interior of the island. On September 25 Enrico attacked San Juan,
   besieging El Morro Castle and La Fortaleza (the Governor's Mansion). He
   invaded the capital city and set up his headquarters in La Fortaleza.
   The Dutch were counterattacked by the civilian militia on land and by
   the cannons of the Spanish troops in El Morro Castle. The land battle
   left 60 Dutch soldiers dead and Enrico wounded. The Dutch ships at sea
   were boarded by Puerto Ricans who defeated those aboard. After a long
   battle, the Spanish soldiers and volunteers of the city's militia were
   able to defend the city from the attack and save the island from an
   invasion. On October 21, Enrico set La Fortaleza and the city ablaze
   upon his retreat. He then tried to invade the island by attacking the
   town of Aguada. He was again defeated by the local militia and
   abandoned the idea of invading Puerto Rico.

French

   The British and the Dutch were not the only enemies that Spain faced in
   the Caribbean during this period. On October 11, 1528, the French
   sacked and burned the settlement of San Germán during an attempt to
   capture the island, destroying many of the island's first
   settlements—including Guánica, Sotomayor, Daguao and Loiza—before the
   local militia forced them to retreat. The only settlement that remained
   was San Juan.

   France had threatened to invade the Spanish Colony of Santo Domingo. In
   1808, the Spanish Crown sent their Navy, under the command of Puerto
   Rican Admiral Ramon Power y Giralt, to prevent the invasion of Santo
   Domingo by the French by enforcing a blockade. He was successful and
   was proclaimed a hero by the Spanish Government.

Revolt against Spain

South America

   General Antonio Valero de Bernabe, the "Liberator from Puerto Rico"
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   General Antonio Valero de Bernabe, the "Liberator from Puerto Rico"

   In the early 19th century the Spanish colonies, in what is known as the
   Latin American revolutions, began to revolt against Spanish rule.
   Antonio Valero de Bernabe was a Puerto Rican military leader known in
   Latin America as the "Liberator from Puerto Rico". Valero was a recent
   graduate of the Spanish Military Academy when Napoleon Bonaparte
   convinced King Charles IV of Spain to permit him to pass through
   Spanish soil with the sole purpose of attacking Portugal. When Napoleon
   refused to leave, the Spanish government declared war. Valero joined
   the Spanish Army and helped defeat Napoleon's army at the Battle of
   Zaragoza. Valero became a hero; he was promoted to the rank of colonel
   and was awarded many decorations.

   When Ferdinand VII assumed the throne of Spain in 1813, Valero became
   critical of the new king's policies towards the Spanish colonies in
   Latin America. He developed a keen hatred of the monarchy, resigned his
   commission in the army, and headed for Mexico. There he joined the
   insurgent army headed by Agustín de Iturbide, in which Valero was named
   chief of staff. He fought for and helped achieve Mexico's independence
   from Spain. After the Mexican victory, Iturbide proclaimed himself
   Emperor of Mexico. Since Valero had developed anti-monarchist feelings
   following his experiences in Spain, he revolted against Iturbide. His
   revolt failed and he attempted to escape from Mexico by way of sea.

   Valero was captured by a Spanish pirate, who turned him over to the
   Spanish authorities in Cuba. Valero was imprisoned but managed to
   escape with the help of a group of men that identified with Simón
   Bolívar's ideals. Upon learning of Bolívar's dream of creating a
   unified Latin America, including Puerto Rico and Cuba, Valero decided
   to join him. Valero stopped in St. Thomas, where he established
   contacts with the Puerto Rican independence movement. He then traveled
   to Venezuela, where he was met by General Francisco de Paula Santander.
   He next joined Bolívar and fought alongside "The Liberator" against
   Spain, gaining his confidence and admiration. Valero was named Military
   Chief of the Department of Panama, Governor of Puerto Cabello, Chief of
   Staff of Colombia, Minister of War and Maritime of Venezuela, and in
   1849 was promoted to the rank of Brigadier General.

Puerto Rico

   Fort San Cristobal
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   Fort San Cristobal

   On April 13, 1855, a mutiny broke out among the artillerymen at Fort
   San Cristóbal. They were protesting an extended two years of military
   service imposed by the island's Spanish governor, Garcia Cambia. The
   mutineers pointed their cannons towards San Juan, creating a state of
   panic among the population. Upon their surrender, the governor had the
   eight men arrested and sentenced to death by firing squad.

   Many Spanish colonies had gained their independence by the mid-1850s.
   In Puerto Rico, there were two groups: the loyalists, who were loyal to
   Spain, and the independentistas, who advocated independence. In 1866,
   Dr. Ramón Emeterio Betances, Segundo Ruiz Belvis, and other
   independence advocates met in New York City where they formed the
   Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico. An outcome of this venture was
   a plan to send an armed expedition from the Dominican Republic to
   invade the island. Several revolutionary cells were formed in the
   western towns and cities of Puerto Rico. Two of the most important
   cells were at Mayagüez, led by Mathias Brugman and code named "Capa
   Prieto" and at Lares, code-named "Centro Bravo" and headed by Manuel
   Rojas. "Centro Bravo" was the main centre of operations and was located
   in the Rojas plantation of El Triunfo. Manuel Rojas was named
   "Commander of the Liberation Army" by Betances. Mariana Bracetti
   (sister-in-law of Manuel) was named "Leader of the Lares Revolutionary
   Council." Upon the request of Betances, Bracetti knitted the
   revolutionary Flag of Lares (Bandera de Lares).
   Ramón Emeterio Betances Original Lares Revolutionary Flag
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                          Ramón Emeterio Betances

                      Original Lares Revolutionary Flag

   The Spanish authorities discovered the plot and were able to confiscate
   Betances's armed ship before it arrived in Puerto Rico. The Mayor of
   the town of Camuy, Manuel Gonzalez (leader of that town's revolutionary
   cell), was arrested and charged with treason. He learned that the
   Spanish Army was aware of the independence plot, and escaped to warn
   Manuel Rojas. Alerted, the revolutionists decided to start the
   revolution as soon as possible, and set the date for September 28,
   1868. Mathias Brugman and his men joined with Manuel Rojas's men and
   with about 800 men and women, marched on and took the town of Lares.
   This was to be known as "el Grito de Lares." The revolutionists entered
   the town's church and placed Mariana Bracetti's revolutionary flag on
   the High Altar as a sign that the revolution had begun. They declared
   Puerto Rico to be the "Republic of Puerto Rico" and named Francisco
   Ramirez its President. Manuel and his poorly armed followers proceeded
   to march on to the town of San Sebastián, armed only with clubs and
   machetes. The Spanish Army had been forewarned, and awaited with
   superior fire power. The revolutionists were met with deadly fire. The
   revolt failed, many revolutionists were killed, and at least 475,
   including Manuel Rojas and Mariana Bracetti, were imprisoned in the
   jail of Arecibo and sentenced to death.

   Others fled and went into hiding. Mathias Brugman was hiding in a local
   farm where he was betrayed by a farmer named Francisco Quiñones; he was
   captured and executed on the spot. In 1869, fearing another revolt, the
   Spanish Crown disbanded the Puerto Rican Militia, which had been
   composed almost entirely of native-born Puerto Ricans, and also the
   Compañia de Artilleros Morenos de Cangrejos, a separate company of
   black Puerto Ricans. They then organized the Volunteer Institute,
   composed entirely of Spaniards and their sons.

Cuba

   General Juan Rius Rivera, Commander-in-Chief of the Cuban Liberation
   Army
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   General Juan Rius Rivera, Commander-in-Chief of the Cuban Liberation
   Army

   In 1869, the incoming governor of Puerto Rico, Jose Laureano Sanz, in
   an effort to ease tensions in the island, dictated a general amnesty
   and released all who were involved with the Grito de Lares revolt from
   prison. Many of these former prisoners joined the Cuban Liberation Army
   and fought against Spain. Among the many Puerto Ricans who volunteered
   to fight for Cuba's independence were Juan Rius Rivera and Francisco
   Gonzalo Marin, also known as "Pachin Marin."

   Juan Rius Rivera was released from prison for his participation in the
   Lares revolt. He joined the Cuban Liberation Army and was given the
   rank of General. He fought alongside Gen. Máximo Gómez in Cuba's Ten
   Years' War. He later fought alongside Gen. Antonio Maceo and upon
   Maceo's death was named Commander-in-Chief of the Cuban Liberation
   Army. After Cuba gained its independence, Gen. Juan Rius Rivera became
   an active political figure in the new nation.

   Francisco Gonzalo Marin was a renowned poet and journalist in Puerto
   Rico who joined the Cuban Liberation Army upon learning of the death of
   his brother Wecenlao in the battlefields of Cuba. Marin, who was given
   the rank of Lieutenant, befriended and fought alongside José Martí. In
   November 1897 Lt. Marin died from the wounds he received in a skirmish
   against the Spanish Army.

Spanish-American War

   Captain Angel Rivero Mendez
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   Captain Angel Rivero Mendez

   The United States declared war on Spain in 1898 following the sinking
   of the battleship " Maine" in Havana harbour, Cuba. One of the United
   States's principal objectives in the Spanish-American War was to take
   control of Spanish possessions Puerto Rico and Cuba in the Atlantic,
   and the Philippines and Guam in the Pacific.

   On May 10, 1898, Spanish forces, under the command of Capt. Angel
   Rivero Mendez in the fortress of San Cristobal in San Juan, exchanged
   fire with the USS Yale, and on May 12 a fleet of 12 American ships
   bombarded San Juan. On June 25, the USS Yosemite arrived in San Juan
   and blockaded the port. On July 25, General Nelson A. Miles entered the
   southern town of Guánica with 3,300 troops and, with the exception of
   some minor skirmishes, went practically unopposed. One of the most
   notable skirmishes between Spanish forces and Puerto Rican volunteers
   with the Americans occurred on July 26. The Spanish forces engaged the
   6th Massachusetts in a firefight in what became known as the Battle of
   Yauco. Two Spanish soldiers died. The Americans were well received by
   the Puerto Rican population in general, making the invasion much
   easier, and the Spanish surrendered without other major incidents. The
   total casualties of the Puerto Rican Campaign were 450 dead or wounded
   Spanish and Puerto Ricans, and 4 dead and 39 wounded Americans.
   "1st Kentucky Volunteers" in Puerto Rico, 1898
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   "1st Kentucky Volunteers" in Puerto Rico, 1898

   On August 8, 1898, the Spanish-American War ended, and upon the signing
   of the Treaty of Paris on December 10, Puerto Rico became a territory
   of the United States. The Spanish troops had already left by October
   18, and the United States named General John R. Brooke as military
   governor of the island. On July 1, 1899, "The Porto Rico Regiment of
   Infantry, United States Army" was created, and approved by the U.S.
   Congress on May 27, 1908. The regiment was a segregated, all-volunteer
   unit made up of 1,969 Puerto Ricans.

   In 1897, before the onset of fighting in Puerto Rico, Juan Alonso
   Zayas, born in San Juan, was a Second Lieutenant in the Spanish Army
   when he received orders to head for the Philippines to take command of
   the 2nd Expeditionary Battalion stationed in Baler. He arrived in
   Manila, the capital, in May 1897. There he took a vessel and headed for
   Baler, on the island of Luzon. The distance between Manila and Baler is
   62 miles (100 km); if traveled through the jungles and badly-built
   roads, the actual distance was 144 miles (230 km). At that time a
   system of communication between Manila and Baler was almost
   non-existent. The only way Baler received news from Manila was by way
   of vessels. The Spanish colonial government was under constant attack
   from local Filipino groups who wanted independence. Zayas's mission was
   to fortify Baler against any possible attack. Among his plans for the
   defense of Baler was to convert the local church of San Luis de Tolosa
   into a fort.

   The independence advocates, under the leadership of Colonel Calixto
   Vilacorte, were called " insurgents" (tagalos) by the Spanish crown. On
   June 28, 1898, they demanded the surrender of the Spanish army. The
   Spanish governor of the region, Enrique de las Morena y Fossi, refused;
   the Filipinos immediately attacked Baler in a battle that was to last
   for seven months. Despite being outnumbered and suffering hunger and
   disease, the battalion did not capitulate. In the meantime, Zayas and
   the rest of the battalion were totally unaware of the Spanish-American
   War that was going on. On August 1898, the hostilities between the
   United States and Spain came to an end. The Philippines became a U.S.
   possession under the accordance of the Treaty of Paris. The battalion
   at Baler found out about the Spanish-American War and its aftermath in
   May 1899, and surrendered on June 2, 1899. They were unaware that they
   had been fighting for a possession that was no longer theirs. The 32
   survivors of Zayas Battalion were sent to Manila, where they boarded a
   ship for Spain. In Spain, they were given a hero's welcome and became
   known as los Ultimos de Baler—"the Last of Baler."

Puerto Rican National Guard

   Major General Luis R. Esteves (Army)
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   Major General Luis R. Esteves (Army)

   In 1906, a group of Puerto Ricans met with the appointed Governor
   Winthrop, and suggested the organization of a Puerto Rican National
   Guard. The petition failed because the U.S. Constitution prohibits the
   formation of any armed force within the United States and its
   territories without the authorization of Congress. On June 19, 1915,
   Major General Luis R. Esteves of the U.S. Army became the first Puerto
   Rican to graduate from the United States Military Academy at West
   Point, New York. While he attended West Point, he tutored fellow
   classmate Dwight D. Eisenhower in Spanish; a second language was
   required in order to graduate. He was a Second Lieutenant in the 23rd
   Infantry Division of the army under the command of John J. Pershing
   when he was sent to El Paso, Texas in the Pancho Villa Expedition. From
   El Paso, he was sent to the town of Polvo, where he was appointed mayor
   and judge by its citizens. Esteves helped organize the 23rd Battalion,
   which would be composed of Puerto Ricans and be stationed in Panama
   during World War I. He would also play a key role in the formation of
   the Puerto Rican National Guard.

World Wars

World War I

   Upon the outbreak of World War I, the U.S. Congress approved the
   Jones-Shafroth Act, which granted Puerto Ricans citizenship. As a
   result, many Puerto Ricans, with the exception of women, became
   eligible for the military draft. On May 3, 1917, the Regiment recruited
   1,969 men. The 295th and 296 Infantry Regiments were created in Puerto
   Rico. The first shot of World War I by the U.S. was fired in Puerto
   Rico by a Puerto Rican serving in the U.S. Army, Lieutenant Teofilo
   Marxuach. Lt. Marxuach was officer of the day at El Morro Castle, at
   the entrance to San Juan Bay, when war was declared. An armed supply
   ship for German submarines in the Atlantic, the Odenwald, tried to
   force its way out of the bay. Lieutenant Marxuach opened fire from the
   walls of the fortress and forced the ship to return to port and be
   interned.

   On May 17, 1917, the Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry was sent to guard
   the Panama Canal in defense of the Panama Canal Zone.

   By 1918, the Army realized that there was a shortage of physicians
   specializing in anesthesia, a low salary specialty required in the
   military operating rooms. Therefore, the Army reluctantly began hiring
   women physicians as civilian contract employees. The first Puerto Rican
   woman doctor to serve in the Army under contract was Dr. Dolores Piňero
   from San Juan. She was assigned to the San Juan base hospital where she
   worked as an anesthesiologist during the mornings and in the laboratory
   during the afternoons.

   In New York, many Puerto Ricans joined the 396th Infantry Regiment
   which was mostly composed of Afro-Americans. They were not allowed to
   fight alongside their white counterparts; however, they were permitted
   to fight as members of a French unit in French uniforms. They fought
   along the Western Front in France, and their reputation earned them the
   nickname of "the Harlem Hell Fighters" by the Germans. Among them was
   Rafael Hernandez, considered by many as Puerto Rico's greatest
   composer. The 396th was awarded French Croix De Guerre for battlefield
   gallantry by the President of France. The Porto Rico Regiment returned
   to Puerto Rico on March 1919 and was renamed the 65th Infantry Regiment
   under the Reorganization Act of June 4, 1920.

   The need for a Puerto Rican National Guard unit became apparent to
   Major General Luis R. Esteves, who had served as instructor of Puerto
   Rican Officers for the Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry at Camp Las
   Casas in Puerto Rico. His request was met with the approval of the
   government and Puerto Rican Legislature. In 1919, the first regiment of
   the Puerto Rican National Guard was formed, and General Luis R. Esteves
   became the first official Commandant of the Puerto Rican National
   Guard.

   Puerto Rico suffered greatly during the Great Depression of the 1930s,
   and many Puerto Ricans moved to the East Coast of the United States
   looking for jobs and a better way of life. On the island, the
   unemployment rate continued to rise and many Puerto Ricans who were
   unable to find a job looked to the Armed Forces of the United States as
   a source of employment. Not only were they paid better than at the few
   other available jobs, but they were also guaranteed three meals a day,
   clothing, and shelter.

World War II

   World War II was the first conflict in which women, other than nurses,
   were allowed to serve in the U.S. Armed Forces. However, when the
   United States entered World War II, Puerto Rican nurses volunteered for
   service but were not accepted into the Army or Navy Nurse Corps. As a
   result, many of the island's women work force migrated to the mainland
   U.S. to work in the factories which produced military equipment. In
   1944, the Army Nurse Corps decided to actively recruit Puerto Rican
   nurses so that Army hospitals would not have to deal with the language
   barriers. Among them was Second Lieutenant Carmen Dumler, who became
   one of the first Puerto Rican female military officers.

   The 149th Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) Post Headquarters Company
   was the first WAAC Company to go overseas, setting sail from New York
   Harbour for Europe on January 1943. The unit arrived in Northern Africa
   on January 27, 1943 and rendered overseas duties in Algiers within
   General Dwight D. Eisenhower’s theatre headquarters. Tech4 Carmen
   Contreras-Bozak, a member of this unit, was the first Hispanic to serve
   in the U.S. Women's Army Corps as an interpreter and in numerous
   administrative positions.

   Lieutenant Maria Rodriguez Denton (U.S. Navy), born in Guanica, Puerto
   Rico, was the first known woman of Puerto Rican descent who became an
   officer in the United States Navy as member of the WAVES. It was Lt.
   Denton who forwarded the news (through channels) to President Harry S.
   Truman that the war had ended.
   Lt. Gen. Pedro del Valle, (USMC)
   Enlarge
   Lt. Gen. Pedro del Valle, (USMC)

   The 65th Infantry, after an extensive training program in 1942, was
   sent to Panama to protect the Pacific and the Atlantic sides of the
   isthmus in 1943. In 1944, the regiment was sent to North Africa,
   arriving at Casablanca, where they underwent further training. By April
   29, 1944, the Regiment had landed in Italy and moved on to Corsica. On
   September 22, 1944, the 65th Infantry landed in France and was
   committed to action on the Maritime Alps at Peira Cava. There were 47
   battle casualties with Sergeant Angel Martinez, from the town of Sabana
   Grande, being the first Puerto Rican to be killed in action from the
   65th Infantry. On April 20, the 65th overran a sub-camp of the
   Flossenburg Concentration Camp. On March 18, 1945, the regiment was
   sent to the District of Mannheim and assigned to military occupation
   duties. In all, the 65th Infantry participated in the battles of
   Naples-Fogis, Rome-Arno, central Europe and of the Rhineland. On
   October 27, 1945, the regiment sailed from France, arriving at Puerto
   Rico on November 9, 1945. The regiment suffered a total of 23 soldiers
   killed in action. Other Puerto Ricans who played an important role
   during the war were Admiral Horacio Rivero, who was to become the
   highest ranking Hispanic in the history of the U.S. Navy, provided
   artillery cover for the Marines landing on Guadalcanal, Marshall
   Islands, and Okinawa. Lieutenant General Pedro del Valle, the first
   Hispanic Marine Corps general, who played a key role in the Guadalcanal
   Campaign and the Battle of Guam, became the Commanding General of the
   First Marine Division. Del Valle played an instrumental role in the
   defeat of the Japanese forces in Okinawa and was in charge of the
   reorganization of Okinawa.

Revolt against the United States

   During the mid-1940s, various pro-independence groups, such as the
   Puerto Rican Independence Party, which believed in gaining the island's
   independence through the electoral process, and the Puerto Rican
   Nationalist Party, which believed in the concept of armed revolution,
   existed in Puerto Rico. On October 30, 1950 the nationalists, under the
   leadership of Dr. Pedro Albizu Campos staged uprisings in the towns of
   Ponce, Mayagüez, Naranjito, Arecibo, Utuado, San Juan and Jayuya.
   Blanca Canales, nationalist leader of the Grito de Jayuya
   Enlarge
   Blanca Canales, nationalist leader of the Grito de Jayuya

   The most notable of these occurred in Jayuya in what became known as El
   Grito de Jayuya (Jayuya Uprising). Nationalist leader Blanca Canales
   led the armed nationalists into the town and attacked the police
   station. A small battle with the police occurred; one officer was
   killed and three others were wounded before the rest dropped their
   weapons and surrendered. The nationalists cut the telephone lines and
   burned the post office. Canales led the group into the town square
   where the illegal light blue version of the Puerto Rican Flag was
   raised. In the town square, Canales gave a speech and declared Puerto
   Rico a free Republic. The town was held by the nationalists for three
   days.

   The United States declared martial law in Puerto Rico and sent the
   Puerto Rico National Guard to attack Jayuya. The town was attacked by
   U.S. bomber planes and ground artillery. Even though part of the town
   was destroyed, news of this military action was prevented from
   spreading outside of Puerto Rico. It was called an incident between
   Puerto Ricans. The top leaders of the nationalist party, including
   Albizu Campos and Blanca Canales, were arrested and sent to jail to
   serve long prison terms.

   Griselio Torresola, Albizu Campos's boyguard, was in the United States
   at the time of the Jayuya Uprising. Together with fellow nationalist
   Oscar Collazo, he decided to assassinate President Harry S. Truman. On
   November 1, 1950, they attacked the Blair House where Torresola and a
   policeman, Leslie Coffelt, lost their lives. Oscar Collazo was arrested
   and sentenced to death. His sentence was later commuted to life
   imprisonment by President Truman and he eventually received a
   presidential pardon.

Cold War (1947-1991)

   After World War II a geopolitical, ideological, and economic struggle
   emerged between the United States and the Soviet Union which included
   their respective allies. This struggle was popularly named the Cold War
   because open hostilities never occurred between the main parties
   involved. The so-called "war" involved a nuclear and conventional
   weapons arms race, networks of military alliances, economic warfare and
   trade embargos, propaganda, espionage, and proxy wars. The Cuban
   Missile Crisis of 1962 was the most important direct confrontation. The
   Korean and Vietnam War were among the major civil wars polarized along
   Cold War lines.

The USS Cochino incident

   The USS Cochino (SS-345), was a Gato-class submarine under the command
   of Rafael Celestino Benitez. On August 12, 1949, the Cochino, along
   with the USS Tusk, departed from the harbour of Portsmouth, England.
   Both diesel submarines were supposed to be on a cold-water training
   mission, however, according to "Blind Man's Bluff: The Untold Story of
   American Submarine Espionage," the submarines were part of an American
   intelligence operation. They had snorkels that allowed them to spend
   long periods underwater, largely invisible to an enemy, and they
   carried electronic gear designed to detect far-off radio signals. The
   mission of the Cochino and the Tusk was to eavesdrop on communications
   that revealed the testing of submarine-launched Soviet missiles that
   might soon carry nuclear warheads. Thus, making this the first American
   undersea spy missions of the cold war.

   The mission was cut short when one the Cochino's 4,000-pound batteries
   caught fire. Commander Benitez directed the firefighting, trying both
   to save the ship and his crew from the toxic gases. The crew members of
   the Tusk rescued all except one Cochino crew member and convinced
   Commander Benitez, who was the last man on the Cochino, to board the
   Tusk. The Cochino sank off the coast of Norway two minutes after
   Benitez's departure. Benitez retired as a Rear Admiral from the Navy in
   1957.

The Korean War

   Company "C" of the 65th Infantry on patrol
   Enlarge
   Company "C" of the 65th Infantry on patrol

   Sixty-one thousand Puerto Ricans served in the Korean War, including
   18,000 Puerto Ricans who enlisted in the continental United States.
   Puerto Ricans distinguished themselves as part of the 65th Infantry
   Division receiving many awards and recognitions; however, they were
   also involved in the largest court martial of the Korean War.

   On August 26, 1950, the 65th Infantry departed from Puerto Rico and
   arrived in Pusan, Korea on September 23, 1950. It was during the long
   sea voyage that the 65th Infantry was nicknamed the "Borinqueneers".
   The name is a combination of the words "Borinquen" (the Taíno name for
   Puerto Rico) and "Buccaneers". The men of the 65th were the first
   infantrymen to meet the enemy on the battle fields of Korea. Among the
   hardships suffered by the Puerto Ricans was the lack of warm clothing
   during the cold, harsh winters. The enemy made many attempts to
   encircle the Regiment, but each time they failed because of the many
   casualties inflicted by the 65th. On December 1950, the U.S. Marines
   found themselves at the Chosin Reservoir area. In June 1951, The 65th
   was part of a task force which enabled the Marines to withdraw from the
   Hauack-on Reservoir. When the Marines were encircled by the Chinese
   Communist troops close to the Manchurian border, the 65th rushed to
   their defense. As a consequence, the Marines were able to return safely
   to their ships.

   Among the battles and operations in which the 65th participated was the
   Operation "Killer" of January 1951, becoming the first Regiment to
   cross the Han River. On April 1951, the Regiment participated in the
   Uijonber Corridor drives and on June 1951, the 65th was the third
   Regiment to cross the Han Ton River. The 65th was the Regiment that
   took and held Cherwon and they were also instrumental in breaking the
   "Iron Triangle" of Hill 717 on July 1951. On November 1951, the
   Regiment fought off an attack by two Regimental size enemy units, with
   success. Colonel Juan Cesar Cordero Davila was named commander of 65th
   Infantry on February 8, 1952, thus becoming one of the highest ranking
   ethnic officers in the Army. On July 3, 1952, the Regiment defended the
   MLR for 47 days and saw action at Cognac, King and Queen with
   successful attacks on Chinese positions. On October the Regiment also
   saw action in the Cherwon Sector and on Iron Horse, Hill 391, whose
   lower part was called "Jackson Heights". On September 1952, the 65th
   Infantry was holding on to a hill known as "Outpost Kelly". Chinese
   Communist forces that had joined the North Koreans overran the hill in
   what became known as the Battle for Outpost Kelly. Twice the 65th
   Regiment was overwhelmed by Chinese artillery and driven off.

   In June 1953, the 2nd Battalion conducted a series of successful raids
   on Hill 412 and in November, the Regiment successfully counterattacked
   enemy units in the Numsong Valley and held their positions until the
   truce signing between all parts involved.

Mass court-martial and post-war recognitions

   Col. Cordero Davila was relieved of his command by Col. Chester B.
   DeGavre, a West Point graduate and a "continental" officer from the
   mainland United States and the officer staff of the 65th was replaced
   with non-Hispanic officers. DeGavre ordered that the unit stop calling
   itself the Borinqueneers, cut their special rations of rice and beans,
   ordered the men to shave off their mustaches and had ome of them wear
   signs that read "I am a coward". It is believed that as a result of
   this humiliation, combat exhuastion, and the language barrier where
   factors that influenced some of the men of Company L of the 65th in
   their refusal to continue to fight.

   In December 1954, 162 Puerto Ricans of the 65th Infantry were arrested,
   95 were court martialed, and 91 were found guilty and sentenced to
   prison terms ranging from 1 to 18 years of hard labor. It was the
   largest mass court martial of the Korean War. The Secretary of the Army
   Robert Stevens moved quickly to remit the sentences and granted
   clemency and pardons to all those involved. Though the men who were
   court martialed were pardoned, there is currently a campaign for a
   formal exoneration.

   An Army report released in 2001 blamed the breakdown of the 65th on the
   following factors: a shortage of officers and noncommissioned officers,
   a rotation policy that removed combat-experienced leaders and soldiers,
   tactics that led to high casualties, an ammunition shortage,
   communication problems between largely white, English-speaking officers
   and Spanish-speaking Puerto Rican enlisted men, and declining morale.
   The report also found bias in the prosecution of the Puerto Ricans,
   citing instances of continental soldiers who were not charged after
   refusing to fight in similar circumstances, before and after Jackson
   Heights.

   The 65th Infantry was credited with battle participation in nine
   campaigns. Among the distinctions awarded to the members of the 65th
   were 10 Distinguished Service Cross, 256 Silver Star Medals and 595
   Bronze Star Medals. According to "El Nuevo Día Newspaper, 30 May 2004"
   a total of 756 Puerto Ricans lost their lives in Korea, from all four
   branches of the U.S. Armed Forces. More then half of these were from
   the 65th Infantry (This is without including non-Puerto Ricans). The
   65th Infantry returned to Puerto Rico and was deactivated in 1956.
   However, Brig. General Juan Cordero, Puerto Rico's Adjutant General,
   persuaded the Department of the Army to transfer the 65th Infantry from
   the regular Army to the Puerto Rican National Guard. This was the only
   unit ever transferred from active component Army to the Army Guard.

   Among the Puerto Ricans from the regiment who distinguished themselves
   are:Brigadier General Antonio Rodriguez Balinas (awarded two Silver
   Stars), Colonel Carlos Betances Ramirez (only Puerto Rican officer to
   command an infantry batallion), Master Sergeant Pedro Rodriguez
   (awarded two Silver Stars), and Staff Sergeant Modesto Cartagena (the
   most decorated Hispanic in history). Other Puerto Ricans who
   distinguished themselves were: Private First Class Fernando Luis
   Garcia, who became the first Puerto Rican recipient of the Medal of
   Honour when he covered a grenade with his body, saving the lives of his
   fellow Marines, and Major General Salvador E. Felices who flew in 19
   combat bombing missions over North Korea.

Cuban Missile Crisis

   Admiral Horacio Rivero, Jr., (U.S. Navy)
   Enlarge
   Admiral Horacio Rivero, Jr., (U.S. Navy)

   The Cuban Missile Crisis was a tense confrontation between the Soviet
   Union and the United States over the Soviet deployment of nuclear
   missiles in Cuba. On October 22, 1962, Admiral Horacio Rivero was the
   commander of the American fleet sent by President John F. Kennedy to
   set up a quarantine (blockade) of the Soviet ships. On October 28,
   Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev ordered the removal of the Soviet
   missiles in Cuba, and Kennedy ordered an end of the quarantine of Cuba
   on November 20, bringing an end to the crisis. Admiral Rivero later
   served as U.S. Ambassador to Spain (1972–75).

Vietnam War

   Sp4c. Hector Santiago-Colón (U.S. Army)
   Enlarge
   Sp4c. Hector Santiago-Colón (U.S. Army)

   During the Vietnam War, an estimated 48,000 Puerto Ricans served in the
   four branches of the armed forces. Of the 345 Puerto Ricans who died in
   combat, 17 were Missing in Action (MIA), and of these, PFC. Humberto
   Acosta-Rosario is the only one whose body has never been recovered and
   is currently still listed as MIA. Four Puerto Ricans—Spc4 Hector
   Santiago-Colon, Captain Euripedes Rubio, PFC Carlos Lozada and Captain
   Humbert Roque Versace—were awarded the Medal of Honour, the highest
   United States military decoration. Other Puerto Ricans who served in
   Vietnam and had distinguished military careers include: Major General
   Salvador E. Felices, Rear Admiral Diego E. Hernandez, Colonel Hector
   Andres Negroni and Brigadier General Ruben A. Cubero who in 1991 became
   the first person of Hispanic heritage to be named Dean of Faculty of
   the United States Air Force Academy.

   Two Puerto Ricans who served in Vietnam currently hold positions in the
   Administration of President George W. Bush. They are Dr. Richard
   Carmona, a former Green Beret who was awarded two Purple Heart Medals
   and was appointed Surgeon General in March 2002, and Major General
   William A. Navas Jr., who was awarded the Bronze Star Medal and was
   named Assistant Secretary of the Navy in June 6, 2001.

Operation El Dorado Canyon

   On April 14, 1986, in response to acts of terrorism sponsored by Libyan
   leader Muammar al-Qaddafi—in particular, the Berlin disco bombing of
   April 6—and against the backdrop of heightened tension and clashes
   between the Libyan and U.S. Navies over Libya's disputed territorial
   water claims in the Gulf of Sidra, the United States launched a
   surprise attack on key facilities in Tripoli and other parts of Libya.
   The attack was code-named Operation El Dorado Canyon.

   With the acquiescence of the British government, 24 U.S. Air Force
   F-111F fighter-bombers took off from U.S. air bases in England.
   Attacking in the pre-dawn hours of April 15, their main objectives were
   22 airfields, terrorist training camps, and other military
   installations. Captain Fernando L. Ribas-Dominicci was one of the
   pilots who participated in the Libyan air raid. His F-111 was shot down
   over the disputed Gulf of Sidra off the Libyan coast. Ribas-Dominicci
   and his weapons systems officer, Captain Paul F. Lorence, were the only
   U.S. casualties. Al-Qaddafi, who was also personally targeted, escaped
   harm, but his daughter was killed.

Recent events

Gulf War and Operation Restore Hope

   Captain Manuel Rivera Jr., (USMC)
   Captain Manuel Rivera Jr., (USMC)

   In 1990, 1,700 Puerto Rican National Guardsmen were among the 20,000
   Hispanics deployed to the Persian Gulf in Operations Desert Shield and
   Desert Storm as part of the Gulf War. Four Puerto Ricans lost their
   lives, including Captain Manuel Rivera of the Marine Corps, a Puerto
   Rican from the South Bronx, who on January 22, 1991 became the first
   soldier to be killed in Operation Desert Shield. Rivera was killed
   during a support mission over the Persian Gulf. On January 30, 1991,
   the U.S. House of Representatives paid tribute to Rivera.

   Operation Restore Hope was an American military operation with the
   support of the United Nations that was formed to deliver humanitarian
   aid and restore order to the African nation of Somalia, which was
   suffering from a severe famine, anarchy, and domination by a number of
   warlords following the collapse of Siad Barre's Marxist government and
   the outbreak of the Somalian Civil War. On January 30, 1993, Private
   First Class Domingo Arroyo Jr., a Marine from Puerto Rico, became the
   first of the 44 American soldiers killed during the operation. He was
   ambushed in Mogadishu, the capital of Somalia, by Somali warlords.

21st century campaigns

   SPC. Frances M. Vega, (U.S. Army)
   SPC. Frances M. Vega, (U.S. Army)

   In the military campaigns of Afghanistan and Iraq, in what the United
   States and its allies refer to as the War on Terrorism, among those
   that have perished are the first three Puerto Rican women to die in a
   foreign combat zone. They are Specialist Frances M. Vega, Specialist
   Lizbeth Robles and Specialist Aleina Ramirez Gonzalez. On November 2,
   2003, Specialist Frances M. Vega became the first female Puerto Rican
   soldier born in the United States to die in a war zone. A ground-to-air
   missile fired by insurgents in Fallujah hit the Chinook transport
   helicopter Vega was in; she was one of 16 soldiers who lost their lives
   in the crash that followed. On March 1, 2005 Specialist Lizbeth Robles
   became the first female Puerto Rican soldier born on the island to die
   in Iraq when her Humvee was involved in an accident. As of May 2004,
   there were 1,800 Puerto Rican soldiers stationed in Iraq, Kuwait,
   Afghanistan and Bosnia and Herzegovina.

   Over 1,225 Puerto Ricans have died while serving for the United States.
   The names of those who perished in combat are inscribed in "El
   Monumento de la Recordacion" (Monument of Remembrance), which was
   unveiled on May 19, 1996 and is situated in front of the Capitol
   Building in San Juan, Puerto Rico.

   General William W. Harris was quoted in the Puerto Rico Herald as
   saying, "No ethnic group has greater pride in itself and its heritage
   then the Puerto Rican people. Nor have I encountered any that can be
   more dedicated and zealous in support of the democratic principles for
   which the United States stands. Many Puerto Ricans have fought to the
   death to uphold them".

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