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Mosaic

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Art

                    Detail of mosaic from Herculaneum depicting Amphitrite
                    Detail of mosaic from Herculaneum depicting Amphitrite

      A small part of The Great Pavement, a Roman mosaic laid in AD 325 at
                                    Woodchester, Gloucestershire, England.
      A small part of The Great Pavement, a Roman mosaic laid in AD 325 at
                                    Woodchester, Gloucestershire, England.

     Cave canem mosaics ('beware of the dog') were a popular motif for the
                                                threshold of Roman villas.
     Cave canem mosaics ('beware of the dog') were a popular motif for the
                                                threshold of Roman villas.

                 Early 12th-century Kievan mosaic depicting St. Demetrius.
                 Early 12th-century Kievan mosaic depicting St. Demetrius.

         Located in Tustin, California, this contemporary opalescent glass
            mosaic by David Ascalon depicts events from the Old Testament.
         Located in Tustin, California, this contemporary opalescent glass
            mosaic by David Ascalon depicts events from the Old Testament.

   Mosaic is the art of decoration with small pieces of colored glass,
   stone or other material. It may be a technique of decorative art, an
   aspect of interior decoration or of cultural and spiritual significance
   as in a cathedral. Small tiles or fragments of pottery (known as
   tesserae, diminutive tessellae) or of colored glass or clear glass
   backed with metal foils are used to create a pattern or picture.

History

   Mosaics were used across the ancient world for domestic interior
   decoration. Mosaics of the 4th century BC are found in the Macedonian
   palace-city of Aegae, and they enriched the floors of Hellenistic
   villas, and Roman dwellings from Britain to Dura-Europas. Splendid
   mosaic floors distinguished luxurious Roman villas across north Africa.
   In Rome, Nero and his architects used mosaics to cover the surfaces of
   walls and ceilings in the Domus Aurea, built AD 64.

Early Christian art

   With the building of Christian basilicas in the late 4th century, wall
   and ceiling mosaics were adapted to Christian uses. The earliest
   examples, such as those of the first basilica of St. Peter and St. Paul
   were all destroyed, but the mosaics of Santa Constanza and Santa
   Pudenziana, both from the 4th century, survived. The winemaking putti
   in the ambulatory of Santa Constanza still follow the classical
   tradition (ie. feast of Bacchus). The so-called Tomb of the Julii, near
   the crypt beneath St Peter's Basilica, is a fourth-century vaulted tomb
   with wall and ceiling mosaics that are given Christian interpretations.
   The former Tomb of Galerius in Thessaloniki, converted into a Christian
   church during the course of the 4th century, was embellished with very
   high artistic quality mosaics. Only fragments survived of the original
   decoration, especially a band depicting saints with hands raised in
   prayer, in front of complex architectural phantasies.

   In the following century Ravenna, the capital of the Western Roman
   Empire, became the centre of late Roman mosaic art (see details in
   Ravenna section). Milan also served as the capital of the western
   empire in the 4th century. In the St Aquilinus Chapel of the Basilica
   of San Lorenzo mosaics executed in the late 4th-early 5th centuries,
   depict Christ with the Apostles and the Abduction of Elijah; these
   mosaics are outstanding for their bright colors, naturalism and
   adherence to the classical canons of order and proportion.

   Albingaunum was the main Roman port of Liguria. The octogonal baptistry
   of the town was decorated in the 5th century with high quality blue and
   white mosaics representing the Apostles. The surviving remains are
   fragmentary.

   A beautiful mosaic pavement depicting humans, animals and plants from
   the original fourth-century cathedral of Aquileia have survived in the
   later medieval church. This mosaic adopts pagan motifs such as the
   Nilotic scene but behind the traditional naturalistic content is
   Christian symbolism (ichthys, fisherman). The sixth-century early
   Christian basilicas of Sant' Eufemia and Santa Maria delle Grazie in
   Grado also boast magnificent mosaic floors.

Ravenna

   In the 5th century Ravenna, the capital of the Western Roman Empire,
   became the centre of late Roman mosaic art. The Mausoleum of Galla
   Placidia was decorated with mosaics of high artistic quality in
   425-430. The vaults of the small, cross-shaped structure are clad with
   mosaics on blue background. The central motif above the crossing - the
   golden cross in the middle of the stary sky - especially capturing.
   Another great building established by Galla Placidia was the Church of
   San Giovanni Evangelista. She erected it in fulfillement of a vow that
   she made when escaped from a deadly storm in 425 on the sea voyage from
   Constantinople to Ravenna. The mosaics depicted the storm, portraits of
   members of the western and eastern imperial family and the bishop of
   Ravenna, Peter Chrysologus. They were probably the most beautiful late
   Roman works of art in Ravenna, but we know them only from Renaissance
   sources because they were destroyed in 1569.

   Ostrogoths kept alive the tradition in the sixth century, as the
   mosaics of the Arian Baptistry, Baptistry of Neon, Archiepiscopal
   Chapel, and the earlier phase mosaics in the Basilica of San Vitale and
   Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo testify.

   After 539 Ravenna was conquered by the Byzantine Empire and became the
   seat of the Exarchate of Ravenna. The greatest development of Christian
   mosaics unfolded in the second half of the 6th century. Outstanding
   examples of Byzantine mosaic art are the later phase mosaics in the
   Basilica of San Vitale and Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo. The
   mosaic depicting Emperor Justinian I and Empress Theodora in the
   Basilica of San Vitale were executed shortly after the Byzantine
   conquest. The mosaics of the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe were
   made around 549. The anti-Arian theme is obvious in the apse mosaic of
   San Michele in Affricisco, executed in 545-547 (largely destroyed, the
   remains in Berlin).

   The last example of Byzantine mosaics in Ravenna was commissioned by
   bishop Reparatus between 673-79 in the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in
   Classe. The mosaic panel in the apse showing the bishop with Emperor
   Constantine IV is obviously an imitation of the Justinian panel in San
   Vitale.

   Ravenna is still known world-wide as the Capital of Mosaic on account
   of its unique artistic heritage.

Byzantine mosaics

   Mosaic Icon of Christ Pantocrator from Hagia Sophia.
   Mosaic Icon of Christ Pantocrator from Hagia Sophia.

   Mosaics played a more important role in Byzantine art as in
   Western-Europe. Byzantine church interiors were generally covered with
   golden mosaics. Mosaic art flourished in the Byzantine Empire from the
   6th to the 15th century. The majority of Byzantine mosaics were
   destroyed without trace during the long Christian-Muslim wars but
   surviving remains still form a beautiful collection.

   The buildings of Emperor Justinian like the Hagia Sophia in
   Constantinople and the Nea Church in Jerusalem were certainly
   embellished with great mosaics but none of these survived. Probably the
   earliest example of Byzantine mosaic art can be found in the Saint
   Catherine's Monastery on Mount Sinai. On the upper wall Moses is shown
   in two panels on a landscape background. In the apse we can see the
   Transfiguration of Jesus on a golden background. The apse is surrounded
   with bands containing medallions of apostles and prophets, and two
   contemporary figure, "Abbot Longinos" and "John the Deacon". The mosaic
   was probably created in 565/6.

   The so-called small sekretonof the Great Palace of Constantinople was
   built in 565-577. Some fragments survived from the mosaics of the
   vaulted room. The vine scroll motives are very similar to those in the
   Santa Constanza and they still follow the Classical tradition. There
   are remains of floral decoration in the Panayia Acheiropoietos Church
   in Thessaloniki (5-6th centuries).

   In the 6th century Ravenna, the capital of Byzantine Italy, became the
   centre of mosaic making (see details in Ravenna section). Istria also
   boasts some important examples from this era. The Euphrasian Basilica
   in Parentium was built in the middle of the 6th century and decorated
   with outstanding mosaics depicting the Theotokos flanked by angels and
   saints. It is a typical Ravennate work of art.

   Interesting fragments remained from the mosaics of the Church of Santa
   Maria Formosa in Pola. These high quality pieces were made during the
   6th century by artists from Constantinople. Their pure Byzantine style
   is different than the contemporary Ravennate mosaics.

   Very few early Bzyantine mosaics survived the Iconoclastic destruction
   of the 8th century. Among the rare examples are the 6th century Christ
   in majesty (or Ezekiel's Vision) mosaic in the apse of the Osios David
   Church in Thessaloniki that was hidden behind mortar during the times
   of danger. The early 7th century Hagios Demetrios Church also escaped
   destruction.

   In the Iconoclastic era figural mosaics were also condemned as
   idolatry. The Iconoclastic churches were embellished with plain gold
   mosaics with only one great cross in the apse like the Hagia Irene in
   Constantinople (after 740). There were similar crosses in the apses of
   the Hagia Sophia Church in Thessaloniki and in the Church of the
   Dormition in Nicaea. The crosses were substituted with the image of the
   Theotokos in both churches after the victory of the Iconodules (787-797
   and in 8-9th centuries respectively, the Dormition church was totally
   destroyed in 1922).
   One of floor mosaics excavated at the Great Palace of Constantinople,
   dated to the reign of Justinian I.
   One of floor mosaics excavated at the Great Palace of Constantinople,
   dated to the reign of Justinian I.

   A similar Theotokos image flanked by two archangels were made for the
   Hagia Sophia in Constantinople in 867. The dedication inscription says:
   "The images which the impostors had cast down here pious emperors have
   again set up." In the 870s the so-called large sekreton of the Great
   Palace of Constantinople was decorated with the images of the four
   great iconodule patriarchs.

   The post-Iconoclastic era was the heyday of Byzantine art with the most
   beautiful mosaics executed. The mosaics of the Macedonian Renaissance
   (867-1056) carefully mingled traditionalism with innovation. The 9th
   and 10th century mosaics of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople are
   truly classical Byzantine artworks. The north and south tympana beneath
   the dome was decorated with figures of prophets, saints and patriarchs.
   Above the principal door from the narthex we can see an Emperor
   kneeling before Christ (late 9th or early 10th century). Above the door
   from the soutwest vestibule to the narthex another mosaic shows the
   Theotokos with Iustinian and Constantine. Iustinian is offering the
   model of the church to Mary while Constantine is helding the model of
   the city in his hand. Both emperors are beardless - this is an example
   for conscious archaization as contemporary Byzantine rulers were
   bearded. A mosaic panel on the gallery shows Christ with Constantine
   Monomachos and Empress Zoe (1042-1055). The emperor gives a bulging
   money sack to Christ offering a donation for the church.

   Another great mosaics of the Macedonian renaissance in the church of St
   Mary of the Pharos and the Nea Church were totally destroyed together
   with the buildings themselves. The dome of the Hagia Sophia Church in
   Thessaloniki is decorated with an Ascension mosaic (c. 885). The
   composition resembles to the great baptistries in Ravenna with apostles
   standing between palms and Christ in the middle. The scheme is somewhat
   unusual as the standard post-Iconoclastic formula for domes contained
   only the image of the Pantokrator.

   An interesting set of Macedonian era mosaics make up the decoration of
   the Hosios Loukas Monastery. In the nartex we can see the Crucifixion,
   the Pantokrator and the Anastasis above the doors, while in the church
   the Theotokos (apse), Pentecost, scenes from Christ's life and ermit St
   Loukas (all executed before 1048). The scenes are treated with a
   minimum of detail and the panels are dominated with the gold setting.

   The Nea Moni Monastery on Chios was established by Constantine
   Monomachos in 1043-1056. The exceptional mosaic decoration of the dome
   showing probably the nine orders of the angels was destroyed in 1822
   but other interesting panels survived (Theotokos with raised hands,
   four evangelists with seraphim, scenes from Christ's life and an
   interesting Anastasis where King Salomon bears resemblance to
   Constantine Monomachos). In comparison with Osios Loukas Nea Moni
   mosaics contain more figures, detail, landscape and setting.

   The Daphni Monastery houses the best preserved complex of mosaics from
   the early Comnenan period (ca. 1100) when the austere and hieratic
   manner typical for the Macedonian epoch and represented by the Christ
   Pantocrator image inside the dome, was metamorphosing into a more
   intimate and delicate style, of which The Angel before St Joachim —
   with its pastoral backdrop, harmonious gestures and pensive lyricism —
   is considered a superb example.

   There are very few existing mosaics from the Komnenian period but this
   paucity must be due to accidents of survival and gives a misleading
   impression. The only surviving 12th century mosaic work in
   Constantinople is a panel in Hagia Sophia depicting Emperor John II and
   Empress Eirene with the Theotokos (1122-34). The empress with her long
   braided hair and rosy cheeks is especially capturing. It must be a
   life-like portrayal because Eirene was really a redhead as her original
   Hungarian name, Piroska shows. The imperial mausoleum of the Komnenos
   dynasty, the Pantokrator Monastery was certainly decorated with great
   mosaics but these were later destroyed. The lack of Komnenian mosaics
   outside the capital is even more apparent. There is only a "Communion
   of the Apostles" in the apse of the cathedral of Serres.

   A striking technical innovation of the Komnenian period was the
   production of very precious, miniature mosaic icons. In these icons the
   small tesserae (with sides of 1 mm or less) were set on wax or resin on
   a wooden panel. These products of extraordinary craftmanship were
   intended for private devotion. The Louvre Transfiguration is a very
   fine example from the late 12th century.

   The sack of Constantinople in 1204 caused the decline of mosaic art for
   the next five decades. After the reconquest of the city by Michael VIII
   Palaiologos in 1261 the Hagia Sophia was restored and a beautiful new
   Deesis was made on the south galery. This huge mosaic panel with
   figures two and a half times lifesize is really overwhelming due to its
   grand scale and superlative craftmanship. The Hagia Sophia Deesis is
   probably the most famous Byzantine mosaic in Constantinople.

   The Pammakaristos Monastery was restored by Michael Glabas, an imperial
   official, in the late 13th century. Only the mosaic decoration of small
   burial chapel of Glabas survived. This domed chapel was built by his
   widow, Martha around 1304-08. In the miniature dome we can see the
   traditional Pantokrator with twelve prophets beneath. Unusually the
   apse is decorated with a Deesis, probably due to the funerary function
   of the chapel.

   The Church of the Holy Apostles in Thessaloniki was built in 1310-14.
   Although some vandal systematically removed the gold tesserae of the
   background it can be seen that the Pantokrator and the prophets in the
   dome follow the traditional Byzantine pattern. Many details are similar
   to the Pammakaristos mosaics so we can suppose that the same team of
   mosaicists worked in both buildings. Another building with a related
   mosaic decoration is the Theotokos Paregoritissa Church in Arta. The
   church was established by the Despot of Epirus in 1294-96. In the dome
   we can see the traditional stern Pantokrator, with prophets and
   cherubim below.

   The greatest mosaic work of the Palaiologian Renessaince is the
   decoration of the Chora Church in Constantinople. Although the mosaics
   of the naos haven't survived except three panels, the decoration of the
   exonarthex and the esonarthex constitute the most important full-scale
   mosaic cycle in Constantinople after the Hagia Sophia. They were
   executed around 1320 by the command of Theodore Metochites. The
   esonarthex has two fluted domes, specially created to provide the ideal
   setting for the mosaic images of the ancestors of Christ. The southern
   one is called the Dome of the Pantokrator while the northern one is the
   Dome of the Theotokos. The most important panel of the esonarthex
   depicts Theodor Metochites wearing a huge turban, offering the model of
   the church to Christ. The walls of both narthexes are decorated with
   mosaic cycles from the life of the Virgin and the life of Christ. These
   panels show the influence of the Italian trecento on Byzantine art
   especially the more natural settings, landscapes, figures.

   The last Byzantine mosaic work was created for the Hagia Sophia,
   Constantinople in the middle of the 14th century. The great eastern
   arch of the cathedral collapsed in 1346, bringing down the third of the
   main dome. By 1355 not only the big Pantokrator image was restored but
   new mosaics were set on the eastern arch depicting the Theotokos, the
   Baptist and Emperor John V Palaiologos (discovered only in 1989).

Medieval Rome

   Christian mosaic art also flourished in Late Antique and medieval Rome.
   5th century mosaics can be found over the triumphal arch and in the
   nave of the basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore. The 27 surviving panels
   of the nave are the most important mosaic cycle in Rome of this period.
   6th century pieces are really rare in Rome but we should mention the
   mosaics inside the triumphal arch of the basilica of San Lorenzo fuori
   le mura. The Chapel of Ss. Primo e Feliciano in Santo Stefano Rotondo
   has very interesting and rare mosaics from the 7th century. This chapel
   was built by by Pope Theodore I as a family burial place.

   In the 7-9th centuries Rome fell under the influence of Byzantine art,
   noticeable on the mosaics of Santa Prassede, Santa Maria in Domnica,
   Sant'Agnese fuori le Mura, Santa Cecilia in Trastevere and the San
   Venanzio chapel of San Giovanni in Laterano. The great dining hall of
   Pope Leo III in the Lateran Palace was also decorated with mosaics.
   They were all destroyed later except one interesting example, the
   so-called Triclinio Leoniano about which a copy was made in the 18th
   century.

   The last great period of Roman mosaic art was the 12-13th century when
   Rome developed their own distinct artistic style, free from the strict
   rules of eastern tradition and with a more realistic portrayal of
   figures in space. The most well-known works of this period are the
   floral mosaics of the Basilica di San Clemente, the façade of Santa
   Maria in Trastevere and San Paolo fuori le Mura. The beautiful apse
   mosaic of Santa Maria in Trastevere (1140) depicts Christ and Mary
   sitting next to each other on the heavenly throne, the first example of
   this iconographic scheme. A similar mosaic, Christ coronating Mary,
   decorates the apse of Santa Maria Maggiore. It is a work of Jacopo
   Torriti from 1295. The mosaics of Torriti and Jacopo da Camerino in the
   apse of San Giovanni in Laterano from 1288-94 were thoroughly restored
   in 1884. The apse mosaic of San Crisogono is attributed to Pietro
   Cavallini, the greatest Roman painter of the 13th century. Six scenes
   from the life of Mary in Santa Maria in Trastevere were also executed
   by Cavallini in 1290. These mosaics are praised for their realistic
   portrayal and attempts of perspective.

   The great Navicella mosaic (1305-1313) in the atrium of the Old St.
   Peter's is attributed to Giotto di Bondone. The giant mosaic,
   commissioned by Cardinal Jacopo Stefaneschi, was originally situated on
   the eastern porch of the old basilica and occupied the whole wall above
   the entrance arcade facing the courtyard. It depicted St. Peter walking
   on the waters. This extraordinary work was mainly destroyed during the
   construction of the new St. Peter's in the 17th century. Navicella
   means "little ship" referring to the large boat which dominated the
   scene, and whose sail, filled by the storm, loomed over the horizon.
   Such a natural representation of a seascape was known only from ancient
   works of art.

Sicily

   In Sicily the heyday of mosaic making was the age of the independent
   Norman kingdom in the 12th century. The Norman kings adopted the
   Byzantine tradition of mosaic decoration to enhance the somewhat
   dubious legality of their rule. Greek masters working in Sicily
   developed their own style, that shows the influence of Western European
   and Islam artistic tendencies. Best examples of Sicilian mosaic art are
   the Cappella Palatina of Roger II, the Martorana church in Palermo and
   the cathedrals of Cefalù and Monreale.

   The Cappella Palatina clearly shows evidence for blending the eastern
   and western styles. The dome (1142-42) and the eastern end of the
   church (1143-1154) were decorated with typical Byzantine mosaics ie.
   Pantokrator, angels, scenes from the life of Christ. Even the
   inscriptions are written in Greek. The narrative scenes of the nave
   (Old Testament, life of Sts Peter and Paul) are resembling to the
   mosaics of the Old St. Peter's and St. Paul's Basilica in Rome (Latin
   inscriptions, 1154-66).

   The Martorana church (decorated around 1143) looked originally even
   more Byzantine although important parts were later demolished. The dome
   mosaic is very similar to that of the Cappella Palatina with Christ
   enthroned in the middle and four bowed, elongated angels. The Greek
   incsriptions, decorative patterns, the evangelists in the squinches are
   obviously executed by the same Greek masters who worked on Capella
   Palatina. The mosaic depicting Roger II of Sicily, dressed in Byzantine
   imperial robes, receiving the crown by Christ was originally in the
   demolished narthex together with another panel, the Theotokos with
   Georgios of Antiochia, the founder of the church.

   In Cefalù (1148) only the high, French Gothic presbitery was covered
   with mosaics: the Pantokrator on the semidome of the apse and cherubim
   on the vault. On the walls we can see Latin and Greek saints, with
   Greek inscriptions.

   The Monreale mosaics constitute the largest decoration of this kind in
   Italy, covering 0,75 hectares with at least 100 million glass and stone
   tesserae. This huge work was executed between 1176 and 1186 by the
   order of King William II of Sicily. The iconography of the mosaics in
   the presbytery is similar to Cefalu while the pictures in the nave are
   almost the same as the narrative scenes in the Cappella Palatina. The
   Martorana mosaic of Roger II blessed by Christ was repeated with the
   figure of King William II instead of his predecessor. Another panel
   shows the king offering the model of the cathedral to the Theotokos.

   The Cathedral of Palermo, rebuilt by Archbishop Walter in the same time
   (1172-85), was certainly decorated with mosaics but none of these
   survived. Southern Italy was also part of the Norman kingdom but great
   mosaics didn't survived in this area except the fine mosaic pavement of
   the Otranto cathedral from 1166, with interesting representations of
   the months, Old Testament subjects and others.

Medieval Italy

   In parts of Italy, which were under eastern artistic influences, like
   Sicily and Venice, mosaic making never went out of fashion in the
   Middle Ages. The whole interior of the St Mark's Basilica in Venice is
   clad with elaborate, golden mosaics. The oldest scenes were executed by
   Greek masters in the late 11th century but the majority of the mosaics
   are works of local artists from the 12-13th centuries. The decoration
   of the church was finished only in the 16th century. 110 scenes of
   mosaics in the atrium of St Mark's were based directly on the
   miniatures of the Cotton Genesis, a Byzantine manuscript that was
   brought to Venice after the sack of Constantinople (1204). The mosaics
   were executed in the 1220s. Other important Venetian mosaics can be
   found in the Cathedral of Santa Maria Assunta in Torcello from the 12th
   century, and in the Basilical of Santi Maria e Donato in Murano with a
   restored apse mosaic from the 12th century and a beautiful mosaic
   pavement (1140).

   Trieste was also an important centre of mosaic art. The mosaics in the
   apse of the Cathedral of San Giusto were laid by master craftsmen from
   Veneto in the 12-13th centuries.

   The Abbot of Monte Cassino, Desiderius sent envoys to Constantinople
   some time after 1066 to hire expert Byzantine mosaicists for the
   decoration of the rebuilt abbey church. According to chronicler Leo of
   Ostia the Greek artists decorated the apse, the arch and the vestibule
   of the basilica. Their work was admired by contemporaries but was
   totally destroyed in later centuries except two fragments depicting
   greyhounds (now in the Monte Cassino Museum). "The abbot in his wisdom
   decided that great number of young monks in the monastery should be
   thoroughly initiated in these arts" - says the chronicler about the
   role of the Greeks in the revival of mosaic art in medieval Italy.

   In Florence a magnificiant mosaic of the Last Judgement decorates the
   dome of the Battistero. The earliest mosaics, works of art of many
   unknown Venetian craftsmen (including probably Cimabue), date from
   1225. The covering of the ceiling was probably not completed until the
   14th century.

   The impressive mosaic of Christ in Majesty, flanked by the Blessed
   Virgin and St. John the Evangelist in the apse of the cathedral of Pisa
   was designed by Cimabue in 1302. It evokes the Monreale mosaics in
   style. It survived the great fire of 1595 which destroyed most of the
   mediveval interior decoration.

   Sometimes not only church interiors but façades were also decorated
   with mosaics in Italy like in the case of the St Mark's Basilica in
   Venice (mainly from the 17-19th centuries, but the oldest one from
   1270-75, "The burial of St Mark in the first basilica"), the Cathedral
   of Orvieto (golden Gothic mosaics from the 14th century, many times
   redone) and the Basilica di San Frediano in Lucca (huge, striking
   golden mosaic representing the Ascension of Christ with the apostles
   below, designed by Berlinghiero Berlinghieri in the 13th century).

Western and Central Europe

   Beyond the Alpes the first important example of mosaic art was the
   decoration of the Palatine Chapel in Aachen, commissioned by
   Charlemagne. It was completely destroyed in a fire in 1650. A rare
   example of surviving Karolingian mosaics is the apsis decoration of the
   oratory of Germigny-des-Prés built by Theodulf in 805-806, bishop of
   Orléans, a leading figure of Carolingian renaissance. This unique work
   of art, rediscovered only in the 19th century, had no followers.

   Later fresco replaced the more labor-intensive technique of mosaic in
   Western-Europe, although mosaics were sometimes used as decoration on
   medieval cathedrals. The Royal Basilica of the Hungarian kings in
   Székesfehérvár (Alba Regia) had a mosaic decoration in the apse. It was
   probably a work of Venetian or Ravennese craftsmen, executed in the
   first decades of the 11th century. The mosaic was almost totally
   destroyed together with the basilica in the 17th century. The Golden
   Gate of the St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague got its name from the golden
   14th century mosaic of the Last Judgement above the portal. It was
   executed by Venetian craftsmen.

   In 2003 remains of a mosaic pavement were discovered under the ruins of
   the Bizere Monastery near the River Mureş in present-day Romania. The
   panels, beautifully crafted, are depicting real or fantastic animal,
   floral, solar and geometric representations. Some archeologists
   supposed that it was the floor of an Orthodox church, built some time
   between the 10th and 11th century. Other experts claim that it was part
   of the later Catholic monastery on the site because it shows the signs
   of strong Italianate influence. The monastery was situated that time in
   the territory of the Kingdom of Hungary.

Renaissance and Baroque

   Although mosaics went out of fashion and were substituted by frescoes
   that time, some of the great Renaissance artists also worked with the
   old technique. Raffaello's "Creation of the World" in the dome of the
   Chigi Chapel in Santa Maria del Popolo is a notable example that was
   executed by a Venetian craftsman, Luigi di Pace.

   In the 17th century, the papacy established a Fabbrica to embellish the
   then new and cavernous St. Peter's Basilica with mosaics. There are few
   frescoes or canvases in the cavernous Basilica. Among the explanations
   are:

          1) The old St. Peter's basilica had been decorated with mosaic,
          as was common in churches built during the Byzantine domination;
          the seventeenth century only followed the tradition to enhance
          continuity.
          2) In a temple like this with high walls and few windows,
          mosaics were brighter and reflected more light.
          3) Mosaics had greater intrinsic longevity than either frescoes
          or canvases in the era lacking internal climate control.

   The mosaics of St. Peter's often show lively Baroque compositions based
   on designs or canvases from like Ciro Ferri, Guido Reni, Domenichino,
   Carlo Maratta, and many others. Raphael is represented by a mosaic
   replica of this last painting, the Transfiguration. Many of these
   mosaics were completed by the Pier Paolo Cristofari. Often works of the
   Fabbrica were used as papal gifts.

Eastern Orthodox countries

   The craft has also been popular in the Eastern Orthodox countries and
   Russia, inherited as part of the Byzantine tradition. Yaroslav, the
   Grand Prince of the Kievan Rus' built a large cathedral in his capital,
   Kiev. The model of the church was the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople,
   and it was also called Saint Sophia Cathedral. It was built mainly by
   Byzantine master craftsmen, sent by Constantine Monomachos, between
   1037 and 1046. Naturally the more important surfaces in the interior
   were decorated with golden mosaics. In the dome we can see the
   traditional stern Pantokrator supported by angels. Between the 12
   windows of the drum were apostles and the four evangelists on the
   pendentives. The apse is dominated by an orant Theotokos with a Deesis
   in three medallions above. Below is a Communion of the Apostles.

   Prince Sviatopolk II built St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery in Kiev
   in 1108. The mosaics of the church are undoubtedly works of Byzantine
   artists. Although the church was destroyed by Soviet authorities,
   majority of the panels were preserved. Small parts of ornamental mosaic
   decoration from the 12th century survived in the Saint Sophia Cathedral
   in Novgorod but this church was largely decorated with frescoes.

   Mosaics stopped being used for church decoration as early as the 12th
   century in the eastern Slavic countries. Later Russian churches were
   decorated with frescoes, similarly than orthodox churches in the
   Balkan.

   The apse mosaic of the Gelati Monastery in Georgia from c. 1130 is
   probably the work of Byzantine mosaicist invited by King Demetre I. The
   fragmentary panel depicting the Theotokos flanked by two archangels
   looks thoroughly Byzantine (with Greek inscriptions).

Islamic art

   Islamic architecture used mosaic technique in intricate geometric
   designs. The process is known as zillij in North Africa and qashani
   further east. Some of the best examples of Islamic mosaics were
   produced in Moorish Spain and are still visible at the Alhambra.

Modern mosaics

   Modern mosaic of a Picasso painting in San Francisco, California.
   Modern mosaic of a Picasso painting in San Francisco, California.

   A modern example of mosaic is the Museum of Natural History station of
   the New York Subway. Some spectacular modern mosaics are the work of
   modernisme style architects Antoni Gaudí and Josep Maria Jujol, for
   example the unique mosaics in the Park Güell in Barcelona.

Mosaic technique

   There are three main methods: the direct method, the indirect method
   and the double indirect method.

Direct method

   The direct method of mosaic construction involves directly placing
   (gluing) the individual tesserae onto the supporting surface. This
   method is well suited to surfaces that have a three-dimensional
   quality, such as vases.

   The direct method suits small projects that are transportable. Another
   advantage of the direct method is that the resulting mosaic is
   progressively visible, allowing for any adjustments to tile colors
   placement.

   The disadvantage of the direct method is that the artist must work
   directly at the chosen surface, which is often not practical for long
   periods of time. It is unsuitable for large scale projects. Also, it is
   difficult to control the evenness of the finished surface. This is of
   particular importance when creating a functional surface such as a
   floor or a table top.

   A modern version of the direct method, sometimes called "Double
   Direct," is to work directly onto fibreglass mesh. The mosaic can then
   be constructed with the design visible on the surface and transported
   to its final location. Large work can be done in this way, with the
   mosaic being cut up for shipping and then reassembled for installation.
   It enables the artist to work in comfort in a studio rather than at the
   site of installation.

Indirect method

   The indirect method of applying tesserae is often used for very large
   projects with repetitive elements. Tiles are applied upside-down to an
   adhesive backing paper, and later transferred onto walls, floors or
   craft projects. This method is most useful for mosaics with simple or
   geometric patterns, solid blocks of colour, and extremely large
   projects. Mosaic tabletops are usually made using the indirect method,
   as it results in a smoother and more even surface.

Double indirect method

   The double indirect method is often used when it is important to see
   the work during the creation process as it will appear when completed.
   The tesserae are placed face-up on a medium (often adhesive-backed
   paper or sticky plastic) as it will appear when installed. When the
   mosaic is complete, a similar medium is placed atop it. The piece is
   then turned over, the original underlaying material is removed, and the
   piece is installed as in the indirect method described above.

   Both indirect and double-indirect methods are often performed in
   sections, allowing extremely large projects such as murals to be
   completed off-site and transported to their destination without large
   trucks being needed.

Mathematics

   The best way to arrange variously shaped tiles on a surface can lead to
   complicated mathematical problems - see tessellation for details. Roger
   Penrose is a mathematician who has worked with tiling problems - see
   Penrose tilings.

   The artist M.C. Escher was influenced by Moorish mosaics to begin his
   investigations into tessellation.

Digital imaging

   A mosaic in digital imaging is a plurality of non-overlapping images,
   arranged in some tessellation. A photomosaic is a picture made up of
   various other pictures (pioneered by Joseph Francis), in which each "
   pixel" is actually another picture, when examined closely.

   A tile mosaic is a digital image made up of individual tiles, arranged
   in a non-overlapping fashion, e.g. to make a static image on a shower
   room or bathing pool floor, by breaking the image down into square
   pixels formed from ceramic tiles (a typical size is 1 inch by 1 inch,
   as for example, on the floor of the University of Toronto pool, though
   sometimes larger tiles such as 2 by 2 inch are used). These digital
   images are coarse in resolution and often simply express text, such as
   the depth of the pool in various places, but some such digital images
   are used to show a sunset or other beach theme. Obviously digital
   images expressed in ceramic tile are of very low resolution.

   Thus apart from the artistic value (i.e. the work of Robert Silvers, Ed
   Chapman and others who use mosaicing creatively), the mosaicing is
   usually considered an artifact to be filtered out, through
   interpolation by demosaicing.

   Retrieved from " http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosaic"
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