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Olive oil

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Food and agriculture

          Not to be confused with Olive Oyl.

   A bottle of olive oil.
   Enlarge
   A bottle of olive oil.
             Olive oil
   Nutritional value per 100 g
     Energy 890 kcal   3700 kJ

   Carbohydrates            0 g
   Fat                      100 g
   - saturated  14 g
   - monounsaturated  73 g
   - polyunsaturated  11 g
     - omega-3 fat 0.8 g
     - omega-6 fat 10 g
   Protein                  0 g
   Vitamin E  14 mg         93%
   Vitamin K  62 μg         59%
     100 g olive oil is 109 ml
   Percentages are relative to US
   recommendations for adults.

   Olive oil is a vegetable oil obtained from the olive (Olea europaea
   L.), a traditional tree crop of the Mediterranean Basin. It is used in
   cooking, cosmetics, soaps and as a fuel for traditional oil lamps.
   Olive oil is regarded as a healthful dietary oil because of its high
   content of monounsaturated fat (mainly oleic acid) and polyphenols.

Grades and classification

   The International Council (IOOC) sets standards of quality used by the
   major olive oil producing countries. It officially governs 95 percent
   of international production, and holds great influence over the rest.
   IOOC terminology is precise, but it can lead to confusion between the
   words that describe production and the words used on retail labels.
   Olive oil is classified by how it was produced, by its chemistry, and
   by its flavor. All production begins by transforming the olive fruit
   into olive paste. This paste is then malaxed to allow the microscopic
   oil droplets to concentrate. The oil is extracted by means of pressure
   (traditional method) or centrifugation (modern method). After
   extraction the remnant solid substance, called pomace, still contains a
   small quantity of oil.

Industrial grades

   The several oils extracted from the olive fruit can be classified as:
     * Virgin means the oil was produced by the use of physical means and
       no chemical treatment. The term virgin oil referring to production
       is different from Virgin Oil on a retail label (see next section).
     * Refined means that the oil has been chemically treated to
       neutralize strong tastes (characterized as defects) and neutralize
       the acid content (free fatty acids). Refined oil is commonly
       regarded as lower quality than virgin oil; the retail labels
       extra-virgin olive oil and virgin olive oil cannot contain any
       refined oil.
     * Pomace olive oil means oil extracted from the pomace using chemical
       solvents — mostly hexane — and by heat.

   Quantitative analytical methods determine the oil's acidity, defined as
   the percent, measured by weight, of free oleic acid in it. This is a
   measure of the oil's chemical degradation — as the oil degrades, more
   fatty acids get free from the glycerides, increasing the level of free
   acidity. Another measure of the oil's chemical degradation is the
   peroxide level, which measures the degree to which the oil is oxidized
   ( rancid).

   In order to classify olive oil by taste, it is subjectively judged by a
   panel of professional tasters in a blind taste test. This is also
   called its organoleptic quality.

Retail grades

   Since IOOC standards are complex, the labels in stores (except in the
   US -- see below) clearly show an oil's grade:
     * Extra-virgin olive oil comes from the first pressing of the olives,
       contains no more than 0.8% acidity, and is judged to have a
       superior taste. There can be no refined oil in extra-virgin olive
       oil.
     * Virgin olive oil has an acidity less than 2%, and judged to have a
       good taste. There can be no refined oil in virgin olive oil.
     * Olive oil is a blend of virgin oil and refined virgin oil,
       containing at most 1% acidity. It commonly lacks a strong flavor.
     * Olive-pomace oil is a blend of refined pomace olive oil and
       possibly some virgin oil. It is fit for consumption, but it may not
       be called olive oil. Olive-pomace oil is rarely found in a grocery
       store; it is often used for certain kinds of cooking in
       restaurants.
     * Lampante oil is olive oil not used for consumption; lampante comes
       from olive oil's ancient use as fuel in oil-burning lamps. Lampante
       oil is mostly used in the industrial market.

Label wording

   Olive oil vendors choose the wording on their labels very carefully.
     * "Imported from Italy" produces an impression that the olives were
       grown in Italy, although in fact it only means that the oil was
       bottled there. A corner of the same label may note that the oil was
       packed in Italy with olives grown in Spain, Italy, Greece, Turkey,
       and Tunisia.
     * "100% Pure Olive Oil" is often the lowest quality available in a
       retail store: better grades would have "virgin" on the label.
     * "Made from refined olive oils" suggests that the essence was
       captured, but in fact means that the taste and acidity were
       chemically produced.
     * "Light olive oil" suggests a low fat content, whereas in fact it
       refers to a lighter colour. All olive oil—which is, after all,
       fat—has 120 Calories per tablespoon (33 kJ/ ml).
     * "From hand-picked olives" may indicate that the oil is of better
       quality, since producers harvesting olives by mechanical methods
       are inclined to leave olives to over-ripen, in order to maximise
       yield.
     * "First cold press" means that the oil in bottles with this label is
       the first oil that came from the first press of the olives. The
       word "cold" is important because if heat is used, the olive oil's
       chemistry is changed.
     * "D.O.P." when applied to Italian olive oil, denotes that the oil is
       made from olives that are typical of the region from which the oil
       derives, therefore may have a more characteristic taste than
       blended oils.

Retail grades in the US

   Most of the governments in the world are members of the International
   Olive Oil Council, which requires member governments to promulgate laws
   making olive oil labels conform to the IOOC standards.

   The United States, however, is not a member of the IOOC (it is the only
   significant oil-producing or -consuming country that is not), and
   therefore the retail grades listed above have no legal meaning in the
   US. The US Department of Agriculture (USDA), which controls this aspect
   of labeling, currently lists four grades of olive oil: Fancy, Choice,
   Standard, Substandard. These were established in 1948. The grades are
   based on acidity, absence of defects, odour and flavor. While the USDA
   is considering adopting labeling rules that parallel the international
   standards, until they do so terms like "extra virgin" may be applied to
   any grade of oil. As a consequence, the US is a dumping ground for old
   and mislabeled olive oil.

   Therefore, US consumers should be wary of labels, especially ones that
   say "extra virgin." It is best to purchase olive oil for cooking from
   the lowest cost source (the supermarket, for example), but then to buy
   extra virgin oils for finishing, dipping, and dressings from a trusted
   specialty retailer.

World olive oil consumption

   Greece has by far the heaviest per capita consumption of olive oil
   worldwide, over 26 liters per year; Spain and Italy, around 14 l;
   Tunisia, Portugal, and Syria, around 8 l. Northern Europe and North
   America consume far less, around 0.7 l, but the consumption of olive
   oil outside its home territory has been rising steadily.

   Price in an important factor on olive oil consumption in the world
   commodity market. In 1997, global production rose by 47%, which
   replenished low stocks, lowered prices, and increased consumption by
   27%. Overall, world consumption trends are up by 2.5%. Production
   trends are also up due to expanded plantings of olives in Europe, Latin
   America, USA, and Australia.

The market

   Olive tree in Portugal
   Enlarge
   Olive tree in Portugal

   The International Olive Oil Council is an inter-governmental
   organization based in Madrid, Spain that promotes olive oil around the
   world by tracking production, defining quality standards, and
   monitoring authenticity. More than 85% of the world's olives grow in
   the 23 nations that are members of the Council.

   Over 750 million olive trees are cultivated world wide, the greatest
   number of which (c. 95%) being planted in the regions of the
   Mediterranean. About three quarters of the global olive oil production
   come from the European Union, while around 97% of European production
   comes from Spain, Italy and Greece.

   Among global producers, Spain leads with more than 40% of world
   production, followed by Italy and Greece. Much of the Spanish crop is
   exported to Italy, where it is both consumed and repackaged for sale
   abroad as Italian olive oil. Although boutique groceries sell
   high-quality Spanish olive oil at a premium, Italian olive oil has the
   popular reputation for quality. Further still, many profess to the
   superior qualities of Greek olive oil.

   Greece devotes 60% of its cultivated land to olive growing, is the
   world's top producer of black olives, and boasts more varieties of
   olives than any other country. Greece holds third place in world olive
   production with more than 132 million trees, which produce
   approximately 350,000 tons of olive oil annually, of which 75% is extra
   virgin (which makes them the top producer of extra virgin olive oil) as
   compared with Italy (40-45%) or Spain (25-30%). About half of the
   annual Greek olive oil production is exported, while only some 5% of
   this quantity reflects the origin of the bottled product. Greek exports
   primarily target countries of the European Union, the main recipient
   being Italy, which receives about three quarters of total exports.
   Production is concentrated in Crete, Peloponnese (65%), the Aegean
   islands, the mainland Greece, and then the Ionian islands.

   Italian olive oils are categorized according to the following D.O.P.s
   (denominations of protected origin): Aprutino Pescarese, Brisighella,
   Bruzzio, Colline di Brindisi, Colline DI Salernitane, Penisola
   Sorrentina, Riviera Ligure, and Sabina. Olive oil from the Chianti
   region has the prestigious denomination of controlled origin (D.O.C.)
   as well as D.O.P. Among the many different olive varieties used in
   Italy are Frantoio, Leccino Pendolino, and Moraiolo. Extra virgin olive
   oil is exported everywhere -- and often mixed to produce pure. The oil,
   specifically from Bitonto, is held in highest regard. Demand for
   Italian olive oil has soared in the United States. In 1994, exports to
   the US totaled 28.95 million gallons, a 215% increase from 1984. The
   United States is Italy's biggest customer, absorbing 22% of total
   Italian production of 131.6 million gallons in 1994. A 45% increase in
   1995-6 is blamed for a drop of 10% in sales in Italy, and a 10% decline
   in exports to the US Despite shrinkage in production, Italian experts
   of olive oil rose by 19.2% in 1995 vs. 1994. A large share of the
   exports went to the European Union, especially Spain.

   The United States is not a member of the IOOC, and the United States
   Department of Agriculture does not legally recognize its
   classifications (such as extra-virgin olive oil). The USDA uses a
   different system, which it defined in 1948 before the IOOC existed. The
   California Olive Oil Council, a private US trade group, is petitioning
   the Department to adopt terminology and practices that shadow the
   IOOC's rules.

Global olive oil market

   The main producing countries in 2003 were:

     Country Production Consumption Annual Per Capita Consumption ( kg)
                             Spain 44% 23% 13.62
                             Italy 20% 28% 12.35
                             Greece 13% 11% 23.7
                                Turkey 7% 2%
                                Syria 7% 4% 6
            North Africa (mainly Tunisia and Morocco) 4% 4% 10.9
                            Portugal 1.6% 3% 7.1
                          United States nil 8% 0.56
                             France nil 4% 1.34
                                Other 5% 16%

Olive oil extraction

   The Manufacture of Oil, drawn and engraved by J. Amman in the Sixteenth
   Century.
   Enlarge
   The Manufacture of Oil, drawn and engraved by J. Amman in the Sixteenth
   Century.

   Traditionally, olive oil was produced by beating the trees with sticks
   to knock the olives off and crushing them in stone or wooden mortars or
   beam presses. Nowadays, olives are ground to tiny bits, obtaining a
   paste that is mixed with water and processed by a centrifuge, which
   extracts the oil from the paste, leaving behind pomace.

Relation to human health

   In the United States, producers of olive oil may place the following
   health claim on product labels:

          Limited and not conclusive scientific evidence suggests that
          eating about two tablespoons (23 grams) of olive oil daily may
          reduce the risk of coronary heart disease due to the
          monounsaturated fat in olive oil. To achieve this possible
          benefit, olive oil is to replace a similar amount of saturated
          fat and not increase the total number of calories you eat in a
          day.

   This decision was announced November 1, 2004 by the Food and Drug
   Administration after application was made to the FDA by producers.
   Similar labels are permitted for omega-3 fatty acids and walnuts which
   also contain monounsaturated oil.

   A health study in 2005 compared the effects of different sorts of olive
   oil on arterial elasticity. Probands were given a serving of 60 grams
   of white bread and 40 milliliters of olive oil each morning for two
   consecutive days. The study was conducted in two stages. During the
   first stage, the probands received polyphenol-rich oil ("extra virgin"
   oil contains the highest amount of polyphenol antioxidants), during the
   second, they received oil with only one fifth the phenolic content. The
   elasticity of the arterial walls of each proband was measured using a
   pressure sleeve and a Doppler laser. It was discovered that after the
   probands had consumed olive oil high in polyphenol antioxidants, they
   exhibited increased arterial elasticity, while after the consumption of
   olive oil containing less polyphenols, they exhibited no significant
   change in arterial elasticity. It is supposed that, in the long term,
   increased elasticity of arterial walls reduces vascular stress and
   consequentially the risk of two common causes of death - heart attacks
   and stroke. This could, at least in part, explain the lower incidence
   of both ailments in regions where olive oil and olives are consumed on
   a daily basis.

   In addition to the internal health benefits of olive oil, topical
   application is quite popular with fans of natural health remedies.
   Extra Virgin Olive Oil (EVOO) is the preferred grade for moisturizing
   the skin, especially when used in the Oil Cleansing Method (OCM). OCM
   is a method of cleansing and moisturizing the face with a mixture of
   EVOO, castor oil (or another suitable carrier oil) and a select blend
   of essential oils.

History

   Besides food, olive oil has been used for medicines, as a fuel in oil
   lamps, to make soap, as bodily decoration and as a sexual lubricant.
   The importance and antiquity of olive oil can be seen in the fact that
   the word "oil" actually derives from the same root as "olive".

   The olive tree is native to the Mediterranean basin; wild olives were
   collected by Neolithic peoples as early as the 8th millennium BC and
   made into oil by 4500 BC in Palestine.

   It is not clear when and where the olive tree was first domesticated:
   in Asia Minor in the 6th millennium; in Palestine or Syria in the 4th;
   or somewhere in the Fertile Crescent in the 3rd. Recent genetic studies
   suggest that modern cultivars descend from multiple wild ancestors, but
   the detailed history of domestication is not yet understood.

Greece

   Olive trees were certainly cultivated by the Late Minoan period (1500
   BC) in Crete, and perhaps as early as the Early Minoan period. The
   cultivation of the olive tree in Crete became particularly intense in
   the post-palatial period, and played an important role in the island's
   economy. From Crete started the first export of the olive oil not only
   to mainland Greece but to Northern Africa and Asia Minor as well. The
   Minoans used olive oil in religious ceremonies. The oil became a
   principal product of the Minoan civilization, where it is thought to
   have represented wealth. The Minoans put the pulp into settling tanks
   and, when the oil had risen to the top, drained the water from the
   bottom.

   Olive oil was thus very common in Greco-Roman cuisine. According to
   legend, the city of Athens obtained its name because Athenians
   considered olive oil essential, preferring the offering of the goddess
   Athena (an olive tree) over the offering of Poseidon (a spring of salt
   water gushing out of a cliff).

   The Cretans were also the first Greeks to use the oil to anoint
   themselves while taking exercise in the gymnasia. The practice was
   intended to eroticise and highlight the beauty of the male body. From
   its beginnings early in the seventh century BC the decorative use of
   olive oil quickly spread to all of Greece, together with naked
   athletics, and lasted close to a thousand years despite its great
   expense.

Middle East

   Olive trees and oil production in the Middle East can be traced in the
   archives of the ancient city-state Ebla, around a dozen documents,
   dated 2400 BC, describing lands in the property of the king and the
   queen. These belonged to a library of clay tablets perfectly preserved
   by having been baked in the fire that destroyed the palace. Many of the
   tablets dealt with administrative and commercial affairs. The tablets
   that have been consolidated by fire included the first known bilingual
   dictionary. These tablets use cuneiform script and are written in many
   languages. The kingdom of Ebla (2600-2240 BC) was located on the
   outskirts of the Syrian city Aleppo.

   Olive Oil was also used by the ancient Hebrews. Olive oil of the
   highest purity was poured daily into the seven cups of the golden
   candelabrum (called the Menorah) in the Holy Temple in Jerusalem. Olive
   oil was also used for anointing the kings of the kingdoms of Israel and
   Judah. From this ritual of anointing, the expected savior of the Jews
   is called the Messiah (מָשִׁיחַ "anointed one"—mashiach). The word
   Christ (Greek Χριστός, Khristos, "the anointed one") is a literal
   translation of "mashiach".

Olive oil in contemporary religious use

   Used as a medicinal agent in ancient times, and as a cleanser for
   athletes (athletes in the ancient world were slathered in olive oil,
   then scraped to remove dirt), it also has religious symbolism related
   to healing and strength and to "consecration" -- God's setting a person
   or place apart for special work. The Catholic and Orthodox Churches use
   olive oil for the Oil of Catechumens (used to bless and strengthen
   those preparing for Baptism), Oil of the Sick (used to confer the
   Sacrament of Anointing of the Sick), and olive oil mixed with a
   perfuming agent like balsam is consecrated by bishops as Sacred Chrism,
   which is used to confer the sacrament of Confirmation (as a symbol of
   the strengthening of the Holy Spirit), in the rites of Baptism and the
   ordination of priests and bishops, in the consecration of altars and
   churches, and, traditionally, in the anointing of monarchs at their
   coronation. Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ( Mormons) and
   a number of other religions use olive oil when they need to consecrate
   an oil for anointings.

   To this day, Eastern Orthodox Christians use oil lamps in their
   churches and home prayer corners. To make a vigil lamp a votive glass
   with a half-inch of water on the bottom is filled the rest of the way
   with olive oil. The votive glass is placed in a metal holder; different
   kinds of metal holders may hang from a bracket on the wall, or one that
   sits on a table. A cork float with a wick is placed in the glass and
   floats on top of the oil. The wick is then lit. When it comes time to
   douse the flame, the float can be carefully pressed downward into the
   oil, and the oil douses the flame.

   Olive oil is also recommended by Muhammad the Prophet of Islam.
   “Consume olive oil and anoint it upon your bodies since it is of the
   blessed tree.” He also stated that it cures seventy diseases. Olives
   are also mentioned in the Qur’an as a sacred plant "By the fig and the
   olive, and the Mount of Sinai, and this secure city." .

   While other fuels are allowed, Jews prefer to use olive oil to fuel the
   9-branched candelabrum (called a menorah or a hannukiah) used to
   celebrate Judaism's holiday of Hanukkah.

Physical properties

   Olive oil has a specific gravity of 0.915-0.919 (15.5 °C); a refractive
   index of 1.4657-1.4667 (15.5 °C); and a viscosity of 466.81 millipoise
   (27 °C).

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