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Pali Canon

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Religious texts


   Theravada

   Countries
     Sri Lanka
     Cambodia •  Laos
     Myanmar •  Thailand

   Texts


     Pali Canon
     Commentaries

   History


     Pre-sectarian Buddhism
     Early schools •  Sthavira
     Asoka •  Third Council
     Vibhajjavada
     Mahinda •  Sanghamitta
     Dipavamsa •  Mahavamsa
     Buddhaghosa

   Doctrine


     Middle Way
     Noble Eightfold Path
     Four Noble Truths
     Enlightenment Stages
     Buddhist Precepts
     Nibbāṇa - Three Jewels

   Standard edition of the Thai Pali Canon
   Standard edition of the Thai Pali Canon

   The Pali Canon is the standard scripture collection of the Theravada
   Buddhist tradition. It was not printed until the nineteenth century,
   but is now available in electronic form. However, it is not yet
   completely translated into English. The Canon was written down from
   oral tradition in the last century, at the occasion of the Fourth
   Buddhist Council in the first century B.C.E. Most scholars give it some
   sort of pre-eminence among sources for early Buddhism. It is composed
   in the Pali language, and falls into three general categories, called
   pitaka (piṭaka, basket) in Pali. Because of this, the canon is
   traditionally known as the Tipitaka (Tipiṭaka; three baskets). The
   three pitakas are as follows.
    1. Vinaya Pitaka, dealing with rules for monks and nuns
    2. Sutta Pitaka, discourses, most ascribed to the Buddha, but some to
       disciples
    3. Abhidhamma Pitaka, variously described as philosophy, psychology,
       metaphysics etc.

The Canon in the Buddhist tradition

   Dr Rupert Gethin says that the whole of Buddhist history may be
   regarded as a working out of the implications of the early scriptures,
   which are included in the Pali Canon.

Theravada

   The Canon is traditionally described by the Theravada as the Word of
   the Buddha (Buddhavacana), though this is obviously not intended in a
   literal sense, since it includes teachings by disciples.

   The traditional interpretation is given in a series of commentaries
   covering nearly the whole Canon, compiled by Buddhaghosa (fourth or
   fifth century) and his followers, mainly on the basis of earlier
   materials now lost, subcommentaries on most of these and sometimes even
   further layers. It is summarized in Buddhaghosa's Visuddhimagga.

   An official view is given by a spokesman for the Buddha Sasana Council
   of Burma: the Canon contains everything needed to show the path to
   nirvana; the commentaries and subcommentaries sometimes include much
   speculative matter, but are faithful to its teachings and often give
   very illuminating illustrations. In Sri Lanka and Thailand, "official"
   Buddhism has in large part adopted the interpretations of Western
   scholars.

   Although the Canon has existed in written form for two millennia, its
   oral nature has not been forgotten in actual Buddhist practice within
   the tradition: memorization and recitation remain common. Even lay
   people usually know at least a few short texts by heart and recite them
   regularly; this is considered a form of meditation, at least if one
   understands the meaning. Monks are of course expected to know quite a
   bit more (see Dhammapada below for an example). A Burmese monk named
   Vicittasara even learnt the entire Canon by heart for the Sixth
   Council. Recitation is in Pali as the ritual language.

Mahayana

   The Pali Canon as such was unknown in the Mahayana traditions, but
   versions of substantial parts of similar texts from other early
   Buddhist schools were transmitted in Chinese and/or Tibetan. Mahayana
   tends to regard this material as authentic, but its own scriptures as
   giving deeper teachings. There are exceptions to this. For example,
   Tibetan versions of parts of the Pali Canon are classified in the
   tantra sections of some editions of the Kangyur.

Origins

   According to the scriptures a council was held shortly after the
   Buddha's death to collect and preserve his teachings. It is
   traditionally believed by Theravadins that most of the Pali Canon was
   recited orally from this time, with only a few later additions. There
   are wide differences of opinion among scholars on to what extent the
   teachings may be traced to the historical Buddha himself.

   Dr Richard Gombrich, Academic Director of the Oxford Centre for
   Buddhist Studies, former Boden Professor of Sanskrit at the University
   of Oxford and former President of the Pali Text Society, thinks that
   the content, as opposed to the form, of large parts of the Canon goes
   back to the Buddha himself. At the other extreme, Dr Gregory Schopen,
   Professor of Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Buddhist Studies at the University
   of Texas at Austin, argues that it is not until the fifth to sixth
   centuries C.E. that we can know anything definite about the contents of
   the Canon. Other scholars hold various positions in this range.

   Likewise, various positions have been taken on what are the earliest
   books of the Canon. One school of thought gives this position to prose
   works: the Vinaya and the first four nikayas of the Sutta. Included in
   this school are the following: Gombrich; A. K. Warder, Professor
   Emeritus of Sanskrit in the University of Toronto; Gethin On the other
   side, some scholars consider some of the poetic books the earliest: the
   Suttanipata, followed by the Itivuttaka and the Udana. These include
   the following: the late Professor Nakamura Hajime (surname first in
   accordance with Japanese practice); and Ui Hakuju. L. S. Cousins,
   former lecturer in the Department of Comparative Religion at Manchester
   University and former President of the Pali Text Society, holds a
   compromise position, adding the Suttanipata to the prose list.

   Most of the above scholars would probably agree that their early books
   include some later additions. Contrariwise, some scholars have claimed
   that central aspects of late works are or may be much earlier.

   According to the Sinhalese chronicles, the Pali Canon was written down
   in the reign of King Vattagamini (Vaṭṭagamiṇi) (last century B.C.E.) in
   Sri Lanka, at the fourth Buddhist council. Most scholars hold that
   little if anything was added to the Canon after this, though Schopen
   questions this.

Texts and translations

   The climate of Theravada countries is not conducive to the survival of
   manuscripts. Apart from brief quotations in inscriptions and a two-page
   fragment from the eighth or ninth century found in Nepal, the oldest
   manusripts known are from late in the fifteenth century, and there is
   not very much from before the eighteenth.

   The first complete printed edition of the Canon was published in Burma
   in 1900, in 38 volumes. The following editions of the Pali text of the
   Canon are readily available in the West.
     * Pali Text Society edition, 1877–1927 (a few volumes subsequently
       replaced by new editions), 57 volumes including indexes, individual
       volumes also available separately ( website)
     * Thai edition, 1925–8, 45 volumes, electronic transcript by budsir:
       Buddhist scriptures information retrieval, CD-ROM and online, both
       requiring payment; more accurate than the PTS edition, but with
       fewer variant readings
     * Sixth Council edition, Rangoon, 1954–6, 40 volumes, electronic
       transcript by Vipassana Research Institute available online in
       searchable database free of charge, or on CD-ROM (p&p only) from
       the Institute; a rival transcript, produced by the Dhamma Society
       Fund under the patronage of the Supreme Patriarch of Thailand, is
       expected online soon; more accurate than the Thai edition, but with
       fewer variant readings
     * Sinhalese (Buddha Jayanti) edition, 1957–?1993, 58 volumes
       including parallel Sinhalese translations, transcript in Pali Canon
       Online Database, searchable, free of charge (not yet fully
       proofread)

   No one edition has all the best readings, and scholars must compare
   different editions.

   Translation: Pali Canon in English Translation, 1895- , in progress, 43
   volumes so far, Pali Text Society, Lancaster; for details of these and
   other translations of individual books see the separate articles.

Selections

   including material from at least two pitakas. For more specialized
   selections see appropriate articles. For broader selections see
   Buddhist texts and Pali literature.
     * Some Sayings of the Buddha, ed & tr F. L. Woodward, Oxford World
       Classics, 1924
     * The Life of Gotama the Buddha, ed E. H. Brewster, Kegan Paul,
       Trench, Trubner & Co., London, 1926
     * Buddhist Scriptures, ed & tr E. J. Thomas, Wisdom of the East
       Series, John Murray, London, 1931
     * The Vedantic Buddhism of the Buddha, ed & tr J. G. Jennings, pub
       Geoffrey Cumberlege, London, 1947
     * The Living Thoughts of Gotama the Buddha, ed Ananda K. Coomaraswamy
       & I. B. Horner, Cassell, London, 1948
     * The Lion's Roar, ed & tr David Maurice, Rider, London, 1962
     * The Life of the Buddha, ed & tr Nanamoli, Buddhist Publication
       Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1972

Contents of the Canon

   As noted above, the Canon consists of three pitakas.
     * Vinaya Pitaka (vinayapiṭaka)
     * Sutta Pitaka or Suttanta Pitaka
     * Abhidhamma Pitaka

   Details are given below. For fuller information, see standard
   references on Pali literature.

Vinaya Pitaka

   The first category, the Vinaya Pitaka, is mostly concerned with the
   rules of the sangha, both monks and nuns. The rules are preceded by
   stories telling how the Buddha came to lay them down, and followed by
   explanations and analysis. According to the stories, the rules were
   devised on an ad hoc basis as the Buddha encountered various
   behavioural problems or disputes among his followers. This pitaka can
   be divided into three parts.
     * Suttavibhanga (-vibhaṅga) Commentary on the Patimokkha, a basic
       code of rules for monks and nuns that is not as such included in
       the Canon. The monks' rules are dealt with first, followed by those
       of the nuns' rules not already covered.
     * Khandhaka Other rules grouped by topic in 22 chapters.
     * Parivara (parivāra)Analysis of the rules from various points of
       view.

Sutta Pitaka

   The second category is the Sutta Pitaka (literally "basket of threads",
   or of "the well spoken"; Sanskrit: Sutra Pitaka, following the former
   meaning) which consists primarily of accounts of the Buddha's
   teachings. The Sutta Pitaka has five subdivisions or nikayas.
     * Digha Nikaya (dīghanikāya) 34 long discourses. Joy Manné argues
       that this book was particularly intended to make converts, with its
       high proportion of debates and devotional material.
     * Majjhima Nikaya 152 medium discourses. Manné argues that this book
       was particularly intended to give a solid grounding in the teaching
       to converts, with a high proportion of sermons and consultations.
     * Samyutta Nikaya (saṃyutta-) Thousands of short discourses in
       fifty-odd groups by subject, person etc. Bhikkhu Bodhi, in his
       translation, says this nikaya has the most detailed explanations of
       doctrine.
     * Anguttara Nikaya (aṅguttara-) Thousands of short discourses
       arranged numerically from ones to elevens. It contains more
       elementary teaching for ordinary people than the preceding three.
     * Khuddaka Nikaya A miscellaneous collection of works in prose or
       verse.

Khuddaka Nikaya

   The contents of this nikaya vary somewhat between different editions of
   the Canon. The "standard" list, given in most western sources, contains
   the following.
     * Khuddakapatha (-pāṭha) Nine short texts in prose or verse. This
       seems to have been intended as an introductory handbook for
       novices. Most of its contents are found elsewhere in the Canon.
     * Dhammapada 423 verses in 26 chapters by topic. About half the Pali
       verses are found elsewhere in the canon. In the Sinhalese
       tradition, monks have been required to know this book by heart
       before they can be ordained. In the Burmese examination system,
       this is one of the texts to be studied in the first stage of the
       syllabus.
     * Udana (udāna) 80 short passages, mostly verse, ascribed to the
       Buddha, with introductory stories.
     * Itivuttaka 112 prose teachings of the Buddha followed by verse
       paraphrases or complements. These are arranged numerically, from
       ones to fours.
     * Suttanipata(-nipāta) Poems, some in prose frameworks. In five
       parts, of which the first four contain 54 poems. The fifth part is
       a single poem in 16 sections, plus an introduction and a
       conclusion, which last includes a little prose.
     * Vimanavatthu (vimāna-) 85 poems telling of celestial mansions
       resulting from good karma.
     * Petavatthu 51 poems telling of the suffering of ghosts resulting
       from bad karma. It gives prominence to the idea that gifts to monks
       can benefit one's deceased relatives' ghosts.
     * Theragatha(-gāthā) 264 poems ascribed to monks, arranged roughly by
       increasing number of verses.
     * Therigatha (therī-) 73 poems ascribed to nuns, arranged by
       increasing number of verses.
     * Jataka (jātaka) 547 poems said to relate to the Buddha's previous
       lives, arranged roughly by increasing number of verses. Professor
       Oskar von Hinüber says only the last 50 were intended to be
       intelligible on their own. As a result of the arrangement, these
       make up the greater part of the book.
     * Niddesa Commentary on parts of Suttanipata: the last two parts and
       one other sutta. Traditionally ascribed to the Buddha's disciple
       Sariputta.
     * Patisambhidamagga (paṭisambhidā-) 30 treatises on various topics.
       Traditionally ascribed to Sariputta. Gethin says this book presents
       the awakening experience as having many different dimensions and
       aspects, related to the whole of the teaching, and yet as a simple,
       coherent whole.
     * Apadana (apadāna) About 600 poems, most telling how their authors
       performed a meritorious act in a distant past life, resulting in
       favourable rebirths and eventual nirvana. There are 589 in the Pali
       Text Society's edition, 603 in the Sixth Council edition and 592 in
       a number of others.
     * Buddhavamsa (-vaṃsa) Short verse book, mainly telling of the
       previous 24 Buddhas and the current Buddha's meritorious acts
       towards them in his previous lives.
     * Cariyapitaka (cariyā-) 35 poems telling of the Buddha's practice of
       7 of the perfections in his previous lives.

   However, some editions contain in addition some works that have been
   described by western scholars as paracanonical or semicanonical.

Paracanonical or semicanonical works

   Some or all of the following works are included in some editions of the
   Canon published in Burma, Ceylon and Thailand
     * Nettipakarana (nettipakaraṇa, nettippakaraṇa or just netti) This
       book presents methods of interpretation. The colophon ascribes it
       to the Buddha's disciple Kaccana.
     * Petakopadesa (peṭakopadesa)Presents the same methods as the
       preceding book. They have a large amount of overlap. The text of
       this book is very corrupt. The colophon ascribes it to the Buddha's
       disciple Kaccana.
     * Milindapanha (-pañha or -pañhā) A dialogue between King Menander of
       Bactria (second century B.C.E.) and the monk Nagasena. Rhys Davids
       describes this as the greatest work of classical Indian prose
       literature.

   Professor George Bond of Northwestern University says of the first of
   these books that some Theravadins regard it as quasi-canonical, others
   as canonical, especially in Burma. About 1800, the head of the Burmese
   sangha regarded at least the first two of these books as canonical. On
   the other hand, at least one recent Burmese teacher has not.
   Ancient style of scripture used for the Pali Canon
   Ancient style of scripture used for the Pali Canon

Abhidhamma Pitaka

   The third category, the Abhidhamma Pitaka (literally "beyond the
   dhamma", "higher dhamma" or "special dhamma", Sanskrit: Abhidharma
   Pitaka), is a collection of texts which give a systematic philosophical
   description of the nature of mind, matter and time. There are seven
   books in the Abhidhamma Pitaka.
     * Dhammasangani (-saṅgaṇi or -saṅgaṇī)Enumeration, definition and
       classification of dhammas
     * Vibhanga (vibhaṅga) Analysis of 18 topics by various methods,
       including those of the Dhammasangani
     * Dhatukatha(dhātukathā) Deals with interrelations between ideas from
       the previous two books
     * Puggalapannatti (-paññatti) Explanations of types of person,
       arranged numerically in lists from ones to tens
     * Kathavatthu (kathā-)Over 200 debates on points of doctrine
     * Yamaka Applies to 10 topics a procedure involving converse
       questions (e.g. Is X Y? Is Y X?)
     * Patthana (paṭṭhāna) Analysis of 24 types of condition

   The traditional position is that the Abhidhamma is the absolute
   teaching, while the suttas are adapted to the hearer. Most scholars
   describe the abhidhamma as an attempt to systematize the teachings of
   the suttas: Harvey, Gethin. Cousins says that where the suttas think in
   terms of sequences or processes the abhidhamma thinks in terms of
   specific events or occasions.
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