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Panama Canal

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Air & Sea transport

   The Panama Canal (Spanish: Canal de Panamá) is a major ship canal that
   traverses the Isthmus of Panama in Central America, connecting the
   Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Construction of the canal was one of the
   largest and most difficult engineering projects ever undertaken. It has
   had an enormous impact on shipping between the Pacific and Atlantic
   oceans, obviating the long and treacherous route via the Drake Passage
   and Cape Horn at the southernmost tip of South America. A ship sailing
   from New York to San Francisco via the canal travels 9,500  kilometres
   (6,000  mi), well under half the distance of the previous
   22,500 kilometre (14,000 mi) route around Cape Horn. Although the
   concept of a canal in Panama dates back to the early 16th century, the
   first attempt to construct a canal began in 1880 under French
   leadership. After this attempt collapsed, the work was finally
   completed by the United States, and the canal opened in 1914.The
   building of the 77  kilometre (48  mi) canal was plagued by problems,
   including disease (particularly malaria and yellow fever) and
   landslides. As many as 27,500 workers are estimated to have died during
   construction of the canal.

   Since opening, the canal has been enormously successful, and continues
   to be a key conduit for international shipping. Each year the canal
   accommodates the passage of more than 14,000 ships, carrying more than
   203 million tonnes of cargo. By 2002 about 800,000 ships had passed
   through the canal.

   The canal can accommodate vessels from small private yachts up to
   fairly large commercial ships. The maximum size of vessel which can use
   the canal is known as Panamax; an increasing number of modern ships
   exceed this limit, and are known as post-Panamax vessels. A typical
   passage through the canal by a cargo ship takes around nine hours.
   14,011 vessels passed through the canal in 2005, with a total capacity
   of 278.8 million tons, making an average of almost 40 vessels per day.

Layout

   The canal consists of two artificial lakes, several improved and
   artificial channels, and three sets of locks. An additional artificial
   lake, Alajuela Lake, acts as a reservoir for the canal. The layout of
   the canal as seen by a ship transiting from the Pacific end to the
   Atlantic is as follows:
   A schematic of the Panama Canal, illustrating the sequence of locks and
   passages.
   Enlarge
   A schematic of the Panama Canal, illustrating the sequence of locks and
   passages.

   Due to the local geography the main direction of sailing is North-West,
   whereas the global direction from Pacific to Atlantic is East.
     * From the beginning of the buoyed entrance channel in the Gulf of
       Panama, ships travel 13.2  kilometres (8.2  mi) up the channel to
       the Miraflores locks, passing under the Bridge of the Americas
     * The two-stage Miraflores lock system, including the approach wall,
       is 1.7 kilometres (1.1 mi) long, with a total lift of 16.5  metres
       (54  ft) at mid-tide
     * The artificial Miraflores Lake is the next stage, 1.7 kilometres
       (1.0 mi) long, and 16.5 metres (54 ft) above sea level
     * The single-stage Pedro Miguel lock, which is 1.4 kilometres
       (0.8 mi) long, is the last part of the ascent with a lift of
       9.5 metres (31 ft) up to the main level of the canal
     * The Gaillard (Culebra) Cut slices 12.6 kilometres (7.8 mi) through
       the continental divide at an altitude of 26 metres (85 ft), and
       passes under the Centennial Bridge
     * The Chagres River (Río Chagres), a natural waterway enhanced by the
       damming of Lake Gatún, runs west about 8.5 kilometres (5.3 mi),
       merging into Lake Gatun
     * Gatun Lake, an artificial lake formed by the building of the Gatun
       Dam, carries vessels 24.2 kilometres (15.0 mi) across the isthmus
     * The Gatún locks, a three-stage flight of locks 1.9 kilometres
       (1.2 mi) long, drop ships back down to sea level
     * A 3.2 kilometre (2.0 mi) channel forms the approach to the locks
       from the Atlantic side
     * Limón Bay (Bahía Limón), a huge natural harbour, provides an
       anchorage for some ships awaiting transit, and runs 8.7 kilometres
       (5.4 mi) to the outer breakwater

History

   This elevation map of the Panama Canal, prepared in 1923, shows the
   topography of the region through which the canal was cut.
   Enlarge
   This elevation map of the Panama Canal, prepared in 1923, shows the
   topography of the region through which the canal was cut.

   The earliest mention of a canal across the isthmus of Central America
   dates back to 1534, when Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and king of
   Spain, suggested that a canal in Panama would ease the voyage for ships
   traveling to and from Ecuador and Peru.

   Given the strategic situation of Central America as a narrow land
   dividing two great oceans, other forms of trade links were attempted
   over the years. The ill-fated Darien scheme was an attempt launched by
   the Kingdom of Scotland in 1698 to set up an overland trade route, but
   was defeated by the generally inhospitable conditions, and abandoned in
   1700. Finally, the Panama Railway was built across the isthmus, opening
   in 1855. This overland link greatly facilitated trade, and this vital
   piece of infrastructure was a key factor in the selection of the later
   canal route.
   Construction work on the Gaillard Cut is shown in this photograph from
   1907.
   Enlarge
   Construction work on the Gaillard Cut is shown in this photograph from
   1907.

   An all-water route between the oceans was still seen as the ideal
   solution, and the idea of a canal was revived at various times, and for
   various routes; a route through Nicaragua was investigated several
   times. Finally, enthused by the success of the Suez Canal, the French,
   under Ferdinand de Lesseps, began construction on a sea-level canal
   (i.e., without locks) through the province of Panama (as it was then)
   on January 1, 1880. In 1893, after a great deal of work, the French
   scheme was abandoned due to disease and the sheer difficulty of
   building a sea-level canal. The high death toll was one of the major
   factors in the failure: although no detailed records were kept, as many
   as 22,000 workers are estimated to have died during the main period of
   French construction (1881 – 1889).

   The United States, under Theodore Roosevelt, bought out the French
   equipment and excavations, and began work in 1904, after helping Panama
   to declare independence from Colombia in exchange for control of the
   Panama Canal Zone. A significant investment was made in eliminating
   disease from the area, particularly yellow fever and malaria, the
   causes of which had recently been discovered (see Health measures
   during the construction of the Panama Canal). With the diseases under
   control, and after significant work on preparing the infrastructure,
   construction of an elevated canal with locks began in earnest. The
   canal was formally opened on August 15, 1914 with the transit of the
   cargo ship Ancon.

   The advances in hygiene resulted in a relatively low death toll during
   the American construction; still, 5,609 workers died during this period
   (1904 – 1914). This brought the total death toll for the construction
   of the canal to around 27,500.

   By the 1930s it was seen that water supply would be an issue for the
   canal; this prompted the building of the Madden Dam across the Chagres
   River above Gatun Lake. The dam, completed in 1935, created Alajuela
   Lake, which acts as additional water storage for the canal. In 1939,
   construction began on a further major improvement: a new set of locks
   for the canal, large enough to carry the larger warships which the U.S.
   had under construction, or planned for future construction. The work
   proceeded for several years, and significant excavation was carried out
   on the new approach channels; but the project was cancelled after World
   War II.

   After the war, United States control of the canal and the Canal Zone
   surrounding it became contentious as relations between Panama and the
   U.S. became increasingly tense. Many Panamanians felt that the canal
   zone rightfully belonged to Panama; student protests were met by the
   fencing in of the zone and an increased military presence. Negotiations
   toward a new settlement began in 1974, and resulted in the
   Torrijos-Carter Treaties. Signed by President of the United States
   Jimmy Carter and Omar Torrijos of Panama on September 7, 1977, this set
   in motion the process of handing the canal over to Panamanian control.
   Though controversial within the U.S., the treaty led to full Panamanian
   control effective at noon on December 31, 1999, and control of the
   canal was handed over to the Panama Canal Authority (ACP).

   Before this handover, the government of Panama held an international
   bid to negotiate a 25-year contract for operation of the Canal's
   container shipping ports (chiefly two facilities at the Atlantic and
   Pacific outlets), which was won by the Chinese firm Hutchison Whampoa,
   a Hong Kong-based shipping concern whose owner Li Ka Shing is the
   wealthiest man in Asia.

Tolls

   RORO carriers, such as this one at Miraflores locks, are among the
   largest ships to use the canal.
   Enlarge
   RORO carriers, such as this one at Miraflores locks, are among the
   largest ships to use the canal.

   Tolls for the canal are decided by the Panama Canal Authority and are
   based on vessel type, size, and the type of cargo carried.

   For container ships, the toll is assessed per " TEU" (Twenty-foot
   Equivalent Unit), which is the size of a container measuring 20 feet by
   8 feet by 8.5 feet (6 m by 2.4 m by 2.6 m). Effective May 1, 2006, this
   toll is $49 per TEU. This is scheduled to rise to $54 on May 1, 2007. A
   Panamax container ship may carry up to 4,400 TEU. A reduced toll is
   charged for container ships "in ballast"; ie. travelling empty, with no
   cargo or passengers.

   Most other types of vessel pay a toll per PC/UMS net ton, in which one
   "ton" is actually a volume of 100 cubic feet (2.8  m³). (The
   calculation of tonnage for commercial vessels is quite complex.) As of
   2006, this toll is $2.96 per ton for the first 10,000 tons, $2.90 per
   ton for the next 10,000 tons, and $2.85 per ton thereafter. As with
   container ships, a reduced toll is charged for freight ships "in
   ballast".

   Small vessels are assessed tolls based on their length. As of 2006,
   these are:
                         Length of vessel                        Toll
   Up to 15.240 metres (50 ft)                                  $500
   More than 15.240 metres (50 ft) up to 24.384 metres (80 ft)  $750
   More than 24.384 metres (80 ft) up to 30.480 metres (100 ft) $1,000
   More than 30.480 metres (100 ft)                             $1,500

   The most expensive toll for canal passage to date was charged on May
   30, 2006 to the container ship Maersk Dellys, which paid $249,165.00
   for passage. The least expensive toll was 36  cents to American
   adventurer Richard Halliburton who swam the canal in 1928. The average
   toll is around $54,000.

Current issues

   More than ninety years since its opening, the canal continues to enjoy
   great success. Even though world shipping — and the size and design of
   ships themselves — have changed beyond recognition since the canal was
   designed, it continues to be a vital link in world trade, carrying more
   cargo than ever before, with less overhead. Nevertheless, the canal
   certainly faces a number of potential problems.

Efficiency and maintenance

   The administration Building of the Panama Canal is in Balboa, Panama.
   Enlarge
   The administration Building of the Panama Canal is in Balboa, Panama.

   There were fears that efficiency and maintenance would suffer following
   the U.S. withdrawal; however, this does not appear to be the case, and
   the canal's efficiency appears to be improving under Panamanian
   control. Canal Waters Time (CWT), the average time it takes a vessel to
   navigate the canal, including waiting time, is a key measure of
   efficiency; according to the ACP, CWT is decreasing. At the same time,
   the rate of accidents is at a record low.

   Increasing volumes of imports from Asia which previously landed in the
   U.S. west coast ports are now travelling through the canal to the east
   coast. The total number of vessel transits in fiscal year 1999 was
   14,336; this fell to a low of 13,154 in 2003, due at least in part to
   global economic factors, but has risen to 14,011 in 2005 (the canal’s
   fiscal year runs from October to September). However, this has been
   coupled with a steady rise in average ship size and in the numbers of
   Panamax vessels transiting, so that the total tonnage carried has risen
   steadily from 227.9 million PC/UMS tons in fiscal year 1999 to 278.8
   million tons in 2005. Given the negative impact of vessel size on the
   rate of transits (for example, the inability of large vessels to cross
   in the Gaillard Cut), this represents significant overall growth in
   canal capacity, despite the reduction in total transits. The canal set
   a traffic record on March 16, 2004, with 1,005,551 PC/UMS tons of cargo
   transited in a single day; this was broken on March 13, 2006, when
   1,070,023 PC/UMS tons transited the waterway.
   A bucket dredge works to deepen and widen the canal.
   Enlarge
   A bucket dredge works to deepen and widen the canal.

   The canal administration has invested nearly $1 billion in widening and
   modernizing the canal, with the aim of increasing capacity by 20%. The
   canal authority cites a number of major improvements, including the
   widening and straightening of the Gaillard Cut to reduce restrictions
   on crossing vessels, the deepening of the navigational channel in Gatun
   Lake to reduce draft restrictions and improve water supply, and the
   deepening of the Atlantic and Pacific Entrances of the Canal. This is
   supported by new vessels, such as a new drill barge and suction
   dredger, and an increase of the tugboat fleet by 20%. In addition,
   improvements have been made to the operating machinery of the canal,
   including an increased and improved tug locomotive fleet, the
   replacement of more than 16 kilometres of locomotive track, and new
   lock machinery controls. Improvements have been made to the traffic
   management system to allow more efficient control over ships in the
   canal.

   The withdrawal of the U.S. has allowed Panama to sell excess
   electricity produced by the canal's dams, which was previously
   prohibited by the U.S. government. Only 25% of the hydroelectric power
   produced in the canal system is required to run the canal.

Capacity

   The canal is presently handling more vessel traffic than had ever been
   envisioned by its builders. In 1934 it was estimated that the maximum
   capacity of the canal would be around 80 million tons per year; as
   noted above, canal traffic in 2005 consisted of 278.8 million tons of
   shipping.

   Despite the gains which have been made in efficiency, the canal is soon
   expected to approach its maximum capacity. An additional complication
   is that the proportion of large (close to Panamax-sized) ships
   transiting is increasing steadily; this may result in a further
   reduction in the number of transits, even if cargo tonnage rises. In
   any case, if the canal is to continue to serve the needs of world
   shipping, action will be required to increase its capacity.
   Gatun Lake, pictured here in 2000, is having difficulty supplying water
   for the canal's operation.
   Enlarge
   Gatun Lake, pictured here in 2000, is having difficulty supplying water
   for the canal's operation.

Competition

   Despite having enjoyed a privileged position for many years, the canal
   is increasingly facing competition from other quarters. Although
   remote, speculation continues over a possible new canal through Mexico,
   Colombia or Nicaragua that will be capable of accommodating
   post-Panamax vessels, and two private proposals for a railway linking
   ports on the two coasts.

   Critics have also voiced their concerns over the planned increase in
   canal tolls, suggesting that the Suez Canal may become a viable
   alternative for cargo en route from Asia to the U.S. East Coast.
   Nevertheless, demand for the Panama Canal continues to rise.

   The increasing rate of melting of ice in the Arctic Ocean has led to
   speculation that the Northwest Passage may become viable for commercial
   shipping at some point in the future. This route would save
   9,300 kilometres (5,800 mi) on the route from Asia to Europe compared
   with the Panama Canal, possibly leading to a diversion of some traffic
   to that route. However, such a route would still hold significant
   problems due to ice, as well as unresolved territorial issues.

Water issues

   A significant problem is the decreasing average amount of water in
   Gatún Lake, caused largely by deforestation. 52 million gallons of
   fresh water from the lake are drained into the sea by the locks every
   time a ship transits the canal; and although there is sufficient annual
   rainfall to replenish the water used by the canal in a year, the
   seasonal nature of this rainfall means that the water must be stored
   from one rainy season to the next. Although Gatún lake can store some
   of this water, the rainforest has traditionally played a major role by
   absorbing this rain, and then releasing it at a steady rate into the
   lake. With the reduction in vegetation, rain flows quickly down the
   deforested slopes into the lake, from where the excess is spilled out
   into the ocean. This results in a shortfall of water during the dry
   season, when there is comparatively little water flowing to the lake to
   replenish it. Deforestation also causes silt to be more easily eroded
   from the area around Gatún Lake and collect at its bottom, reducing its
   capacity.

Future

   With demand rising, the canal is positioned to be a significant feature
   of world shipping for the foreseeable future. However, changes in
   shipping patterns  — particularly the increasing numbers of
   post-Panamax ships  — will necessitate changes to the canal if it is to
   retain a significant market share. It is anticipated that by 2011, 37%
   of the world's container ships will be too large for the present canal,
   and hence a failure to expand would result in a significant loss of
   market share. The maximum sustainable capacity of the present canal,
   given some relatively minor improvement work, is estimated at between
   330 and 340 million PC/UMS tons per year; it is anticipated that this
   capacity will be reached between 2009 and 2012. Close to 50% of
   transiting vessels are already using the full width of the locks.

   An enlargement scheme similar to the 1939 Third Lock Scheme, to allow
   for a greater number of transits and the ability to handle larger
   ships, has been under consideration for some time. On April 4, 2006,
   the BBC reported that this enlargement scheme had been approved by the
   government of Panama. This proposal to expand the Canal was approved on
   a national referendum by approximately 80% on October 22, 2006.

Third Set of Locks Project

   The new locks will be in triple flights, with sliding lock gates on
   each chamber.
   Enlarge
   The new locks will be in triple flights, with sliding lock gates on
   each chamber.

   The current plan is for two new flights of locks: one to the east of
   the existing Gatún locks, and one southwest of Miraflores locks, each
   supported by approach channels. Each flight will ascend from ocean
   level direct to the Gatún Lake level; the existing two-stage ascent at
   Miraflores / Pedro Miguel will not be replicated. The new lock chambers
   will feature sliding gates, doubled for safety, and will be 427 metres
   (1,400 ft) long, 55 metres (180 ft) wide, and 18.3 metres (60 ft) deep;
   this will allow for the transit of vessels with a beam of up to
   49 metres (160 ft), an overall length of up to 366 metres (1,200 ft)
   and a draft of up to 15 metres (50 ft), equivalent to a container ship
   carrying around 12,000 20-foot (6.1 m) long containers (TEU).

   The new locks will be supported by new approach channels, including a
   6.2 kilometre (3.8 mi) channel at Miraflores from the locks to the
   Gaillard Cut, skirting around Miraflores Lake. Each of these channels
   will be 218 metres (715 ft) wide, which will require post-Panamax
   vessels to navigate the channels in one direction at a time. The
   Gaillard Cut and the channel through Gatún Lake will be widened to no
   less than 280 metres (918 ft) on the straight portions and no less than
   366 metres (1,200 ft) on the bends. The maximum level of Gatún Lake
   will be raised from reference height 26.7 metres (87.5 ft) to
   27.1 metres (89 ft).
   The water storage basins adjacent to each lock chamber are staged in
   height to allow each of them in turn to be filled by gravity as the
   lock chamber drains.
   Enlarge
   The water storage basins adjacent to each lock chamber are staged in
   height to allow each of them in turn to be filled by gravity as the
   lock chamber drains.

   Each flight of locks will be accompanied by nine water reutilisation
   basins (three per lock chamber), each basin being approximately
   70 metres (230 ft) wide, 430 metres (1410 ft) long and 5.50 metres
   (18 ft) deep. These gravity-fed basins will allow 60% of the water used
   in each transit to be reused; the new locks will consequently use 7%
   less water per transit than each of the existing lock lanes. The
   deepening of Gatún Lake, and the raising of its maximum water level,
   will also provide significant extra water storage capacity. These
   measures are intended to allow the expanded canal to operate without
   the construction of new reservoirs.

   The estimated cost of the project is approximately $5.25 billion. The
   project is designed to allow for an anticipated growth in traffic from
   280 million PC/UMS tons in 2005 to nearly 510 million PC/UMS tons in
   2025; the expanded canal will have a maximum sustainable capacity of
   approximately 600 million PC/UMS tons per year. Tolls will continue to
   be calculated based on vessel tonnage, and will not depend on the locks
   used.

   The new locks are expected to open for traffic in 2015. The present
   locks, which will be 100 years old by that time, will then have greater
   access for maintenance, and are projected to continue operating
   indefinitely.

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