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Peru

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Central & South American
Countries; Countries

   SOS Children works in Peru. For more information see SOS Children in
   Peru
   República del Perú
   Republic of Peru

   Flag of Peru Coat of arms of Peru
   Flag         Coat of arms
   Anthem: Somos libres, seámoslo siempre
   "We are free, let us remain so forever"
   Location of Peru
   Capital
   (and largest city) Lima
   12°2.6′S 77°1.7′W
   Official languages Spanish, Quechua, Aymara ^1
   Government Constitutional republic
    - President Alan García Pérez
    - Prime Minister Jorge del Castillo
   Independence from Spain
    - Declared 28 July 1821
   Area
    - Total 1,285,216 km² ( 20th)
   496,222 sq mi
    - Water (%) 8.80%
   Population
    - July 2005 estimate 27,968,000 ( 41st)
    - 2005 census 27,219,266
    - Density 22/km² ( 183rd)
   57/sq mi
   GDP ( PPP) 2005 estimate
    - Total $167.21 billion ( 50th)
    - Per capita $5,983 ( 97th)
   HDI  (2003) 0.762 (medium) ( 79th)
   Currency Nuevo Sol ( PEN)
   Time zone ( UTC-5)
   Internet TLD .pe
   Calling code +51
   1.) Quechua, Aymara and other regional languages are also official in
   the areas where they are predominant.

   Peru, officially the Republic of Peru (Spanish: Perú or República del
   Perú pron. IPA [re'pu.βli.ka del pe'ɾu], Quechua: Piruw), is a country
   in western South America, bordering Ecuador and Colombia to the north,
   Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the south-east, Chile to the south, and
   the Pacific Ocean to the west.

   In addition to being known as the cradle of the Inca empire, Peru is
   the home of many indigenous ethnic groups. It is therefore a country
   with major historical and cultural standing.

History

Ancient cultures

   Archaeological evidence present in sites located in the caves of
   Piquimachay ( Ayacucho), Chivateros, Lauricocha, Paijan, and Toquepala
   indicates that hunters and gatherers inhabited Peru 20,000 years ago.
   Some of the oldest notable civilizations appeared ca. 6000 BC in the
   coastal provinces of Chilca and Paracas and in the highlands province
   of Callejon de Huaylas.

   Over the following 3000 years inhabitants switched to cultivating land,
   as evidence from sites such as Kotosh and Huaca Prieta shows.
   Cultivation of plants such as corn and cotton (Gossypium Barbadense)
   began, as well as the domestication of animals. Inhabitants practiced
   domestic crafts such as spinning and knitting of cotton and wool,
   basketry and pottery.

   Some of the more advanced Andean civilizations that appeared in 900 BC
   were:
     * Caral
     * Chavin – the Peruvian Mother Culture, according to Julio C. Tello
     * Paracas
     * Mochica
     * Nazca
     * Tiahuanaco
     * Wari
     * Chimu

   These cultures developed relatively advanced techniques of cultivation,
   gold and silver craft, pottery, metallurgy, and knitting. Around 700
   BCE, they appear to have developed systems of social organization that
   were the precursors of the Inca civilization.

   Minor civilizations on the edge of the eastern Andes that were largely
   assimilated into the Incan empire include:
     * Malbecs
     * Hu-Tyus
     * Punos
     * Mari-Tiu-Tie
     * Olbraqeus

   Not all Andean cultures were willing to offer their loyalty to the
   Incas as they expanded their empire, and many were openly hostile. The
   people of the Chachapoyas culture were an example of this, but they
   were eventually conquered and integrated into the Inca Empire.

The Incas

   Image:Representación del Zapa Inca.jpg
   The Inca, ruler of the Tahuantinsuyo

   The Incas created the most vast and powerful empire of pre-Columbian
   America. The Tahuantinsuyo—which is derived from Quechua for "The Four
   United Regions"—reached its greatest extension at the beginning of the
   16th century. It dominated a territory that included from north to
   south Ecuador, part of Colombia, the northern half of Chile, and the
   north-east part of Argentina; and from west to east, from Bolivia to
   the Amazonian forests.

   The empire originated from a tribe based in Cuzco, which became the
   capital. Pachacuti was the first ruler to considerably expand the
   boundaries of the Cuzco state. His offspring later ruled an empire by
   both violent and peaceful conquest.

   In Cuzco, the royal city was created to resemble a puma; the head, the
   main royal structure, formed what is now known as Sacsayhuaman. The
   Empire's administrative, political, and military centre was located in
   Cuzco. The empire was divided into four quarters: Chinchasuyo,
   Antisuyo, Contisuyo, and Collasuyo.

   Quechua was the official language, imposed on the citizens. It was the
   language of a tribe neighbouring the original tribe of the empire.
   Conquered populations—tribes, kingdoms, states, and cities—were allowed
   to practice their own religions and lifestyles, but had to recognize
   Inca cultural practices as superior to their own. Inti, the sun god,
   was to be worshipped as one of the most important gods of the empire.
   His representation on earth was the "Inca", the Emperor .

   The Tahuantinsuyo was organized in dominions with a stratified society,
   in which the ruler was the Inca. It was also supported by an economy
   based on the collective property of the land. In fact, the Inca Empire
   was conceived like an ambitious and audacious civilizing project, based
   on a mythical thought, in which the harmony of the relationships
   between the human being, nature, and gods was truly essential.

   Many strange and interesting customs were observed, for example the
   extravagant feast of Inti Raymi which gave thanks to the God Sun, and
   the young women who comprised the Virgins of the Sun, sacrificial
   virgins devoted to the Inti. The empire, being quite large, also had an
   impressive transportation system of roads to all points of the empire
   called the Inca Trail, and chasquis, message carriers who relayed
   information from anywhere in the empire to Cuzco.

   From the European rationalist perspective, the Inca Empire has been
   seen like the utopia state. Nevertheless, this pragmatic interpretation
   tends to forget that the collision between two antithetic
   Weltanschauungs had a destructive impact on the harmony of the Inca
   Weltanschauung superiority, who took advantage of the Inca civil war
   triggered by two pretenders to the throne.

Colonial Peru (Spanish rule)

   Francisco Pizarro and his brothers were attracted by the news of a rich
   and fabulous kingdom. In 1531, they arrived in the country, which they
   called Peru. (The forms Biru, Pirú, and Berú are also seen in early
   records.) According to Raul Porras Barrenechea, Peru is not a Quechuan
   nor Caribbean word, but Indo-Hispanic or hybrid.

   At that moment, the Inca Empire was sunk in a five years civil war
   between two princes, Huáscar and Atahualpa. Taking advantage of this,
   Pizarro carried out a coup d’état. On November 16, 1532, while the
   natives were in a celebration in Cajamarca, the Spanish in a surprise
   move captured the Inca Atahualpa during the Battle of Cajamarca,
   causing a great consternation among the natives and conditioning the
   future course of the fight. When Huascar was killed, the Spanish tried
   and convicted Atahualpa of the murder, executing him by strangulation.

   For a period, Pizarro maintained the ostensible authority of the Inca,
   recognizing Tupac Huallpa as the Inca after Atahualpa's death. But the
   conqueror’s abuses made this façade too obvious. Spanish domination
   consolidated itself as successive indigenous rebellions were bloodily
   repressed. The situation was complicated by a power struggle between
   the Pizarro family and Diego de Almagro. A long civil war developed,
   from which the Pizarros emerged victorious at the Battle of Las
   Salinas.

   Despite this, the Spaniards did not neglect the colonizing process. Its
   most significant milestone was the foundation of Lima in January, 1535,
   from which the political and administrative institutions were
   organized. The necessity of consolidating Spanish royal authority over
   these territories, led to the creation of a Real Audiencia (Royal
   Audience). In 1542, the Spanish created the Viceroyalty of New
   Castilla, that shortly after would be called Viceroyalty of Peru.
   Nevertheless, the Viceroyalty of Peru was not organized until the
   arrival of the Viceroy Francisco de Toledo in 1572.

   Toledo ended the indigenous state of Vilcabamba, executing the Inca
   Tupac Amaru. He also sought economic development through commercial
   monopoly and mineral extraction, mainly from argentiferous mines of
   Potosí. He exploited the Inca institution called “ mita”, that is
   mandatory public service, to put the native communities under a cruel
   economic enslavement.

   The Viceroyalty of Peru became the richest and most powerful Spanish
   Viceroyalty of America in the 18th century. The creation of the
   Viceroyalties of New Granada and Rio de la Plata (at the expense of its
   territory), the duty exemptions that moved the commercial centre from
   Lima to Caracas and Buenos Aires, and the decrease of the mining and
   textile production determined the progressive decay of the Viceroyalty
   of Peru. These events created a favorable climate so that emancipating
   ideas developed between the Spanish Criollo people, or Creoles.

Wars of independence

   Don Jose de San Martín proclaimed the independence of Peru on July 28,
   1821.
   Enlarge
   Don Jose de San Martín proclaimed the independence of Peru on July 28,
   1821.

   The economic crisis favored the indigenous rebellion from 1780 to 1781.
   This rebellion was headed by Túpac Amaru II. At this time, the
   Napoleonic invasion of the Iberian Peninsula and the degradation of the
   Royal power took place. The Creole rebellion of Huánuco arose in 1812
   and the rebellion of Cuzco arose between 1814 and 1816. These
   rebellions defended the liberal principles sanctioned by the
   Constitution of Cadiz of 1812.

   Supported by the power of the Creole oligarchy, the Viceroyalty of Peru
   became the last redoubt of the Spanish dominion in South America. This
   Viceroyalty succumbed after the decisive continental campaigns of Simón
   Bolivar and Jose de San Martin. San Martin, who had displaced the
   royalists of Chile after the magnificent battle of the Andes, and who
   had disembarked in Paracas in 1819, proclaimed the independence of Peru
   in Lima on July 28, 1821. Three years later, the Spanish dominion was
   eliminated definitively after the battles of Junín and Ayacucho. Its
   first elected president, however, wasn't in power until 1827.

War and reconstruction

   In 1879, Peru entered the War of the Pacific which lasted until 1884.
   Bolivia invoked its alliance with Peru against Chile. The Peruvian
   Government tried to mediate the dispute by sending a diplomatic team to
   negotiate with the Chilean government, but the committee concluded that
   war was inevitable. Chile declared war on April 5, 1879. Almost five
   years of war ended with the loss of the department of Tarapacá and the
   provinces of Tacna and Arica, in the Atacama region.

   After the war, an extraordinary effort of reconstruction began.
   Political stability was achieved only in the early 1900s. The civilist
   movement headed by Nicolas de Piérola opposed the military caudillismo
   that arose from the warlike defeat and the economic collapse. He
   arrived to power with the 1895 revolution. The reformist character of
   Pierola’s dictatorship had continuity in Augusto B. Leguía’s.

   During Leguia’s government periods ( 1908– 1912 and 1919– 1930, this
   last one was well-known as “the Oncenio”—The eleventh), the entrance of
   American capitals became general and the bourgeoisie was favored. This
   politics along with the increase of the foreign capital dependency,
   contributed to generate opposition focuses between the landowner
   oligarchy as much as the most progressive sectors of the Peruvian
   society.

   In 1929, Peru and Chile signed a final peace treaty, the Treaty of
   Ancon by which Tacna returned to Peru and Peru yielded permanently the
   rich provinces of Arica and Tarapaca, but kept certain rights to the
   port activities in Arica and decisions of what Chile can do on those
   territories.

   After the world-wide crisis of 1929, numerous brief governments
   followed one another. The APRA party had the opportunity to cause
   system reforms by means of political actions, but it was not
   successful. Represion was brutal in the early 1930's and tens of
   thousands of "APRISTA" followers were executed or imprisoned. By this
   time, it begins a sudden population growth and an urbanization
   increase. During World War II, Peru was the first South American nation
   to align with the United States and its allies against Germany and
   Japan.

   Between these two periods of time, it should be underlined the
   constitution of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA).
   This is a nationalistic movement, populist and anti-imperialist headed
   by Victor Raul Haya de la Torre in 1924. The communist party was
   created four years later and it was led by Jose C. Mariategui.

Modern politics

   Casa de Pizarro, Peru's Government Palace in Lima
   Enlarge
   Casa de Pizarro, Peru's Government Palace in Lima

   General Manuel A. Odría led a dictatorial military government that
   lasted for eight years ( 1948– 1956). Inequitable land tenure
   (latifundia), wide-spread social marginalization and the Cuban example
   provided the impetus in the early 1960s for the emergence of Peru's
   armed left. But this resurgence was brief and gave the pretext for the
   armed forces to increase their control of the country and gather the
   strength and alternative ideology necessary for a coup d'etat

   Meanwhile, the reformist attempt of Fernando Belaunde Terry’s first
   government failed to address the structural nature of social pathology,
   which continued to plague Peru. Belaunde's Government embraced numerous
   projects, including the Carretera Marginal de la Selva, a highway
   linking Chiclayo on the Pacific coast with previously "isolated"
   northern regions of Amazonas, San Martín, and Loreto. However, Belaunde
   was saddled with the popular perception that he was too close to
   foreign capital, moreover his economic decisions lead to the
   devaluation of the sol, and generalized unrest—both in the countryside
   and in Lima.

   In 1968, General Juan Velasco Alvarado’s lead a coup d'etat replacing
   the Belaunde government. Under the title of "President of the
   Revolutionary Government", the nationalist and left-leaning tone of
   Velasco was manifest by his government's promulgation of Peru's first
   substantial agrarian reform, which was aimed at stemming the tide of
   civil unrest, particularly in the Andes where land ownership patterns
   were profoundly inequitable. Velasco's government is credited with
   promoting peasant's rights, including the recognition of Quechua as a
   national language, communal land ownership, and populist social
   mobilization (SINAMOS).

   Invariably, this gave rise to conflict with Peru's small elite, those
   with foreign capital interests and local oligarchs. Velasco's failing
   health, changed global conditions and poor planning resulted in a
   counter-reaction to Velasco's nationalist program. In 1975, General
   Francisco Morales Bermúdez’s lead a coup d’etat, replacing Velasco as
   President. Morales Bermúdez's regime was characterized by a return to
   elite-oriented politics, which did little to stem civil unrest from a
   populace largely excluded from the social benefits of national
   citizenship.

   Frustrated by their inability to "rule" Peru, the Peruvian Armed Forces
   were forced to call for elections. Meanwhile, as a background to the
   return to elected government two events that would deeply influence the
   next two decades of peruvian history took place. The first was a
   constitutional convention that resulted in a new national constitution
   in 1979. The second was the start in 1980 of the armed struggle against
   the government by Shining Path, a breakaway faction of the Communist
   Party of Peru. It was not by coincidence that this struggle started in
   one of the poorest regions of the country while the new constitution
   was hammered out in the capital and away from the focus of
   disenfranchisement.

   So, with great hope Fernando Belaúnde Terry was re-elected in 1980 to
   the Presidency. However, by the end of his term in 1985, Peru yet again
   faced a crisis that has gripped Peru for the past two decades: mounting
   external debt has stymied the actions of successive Peruvian
   governments. Moreover, Belaúnde was impotent in halting the progressive
   impoverishment of the vast majority of population, and incapable of
   halting the massive increase in drug trafficking operations, or the
   insurgent revolts of the Shining Path (Sendero Luminoso) and the Tupac
   Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA).

   With much optimism, the leader of Peru's APRA Party, Alan Garcia was
   elected President in 1985. After a promising start, the Peruvian
   economy was crippled by hyperinflation, isolated from the international
   financial community, and was in the throes of a bloody civil-war
   pitting the Shining Path and the Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement
   against the State and its allies. In a climate of generalized chaos,
   terror, and political violence, the electoral victory of Alberto
   Fujimori took place in 1990, when the virtually unknown University
   Rector narrowly defeated the famous Peruvian novelist and cultural icon
   Mario Vargas Llosa. Like his predecessor, García relinquished power
   leaving the country, according to many Peruvians, in a worse state than
   when he entered office.

   Two years after he was elected; and in constant deadlocks with the
   Parliament, President Alberto Fujimori summarily closed Congress and
   convened a referendum for elaborating a new Constitution (1992).
   Credited by some sectors of Peruvian society and the international
   financial community with restoring macroeconomic "stability" to Peru
   after the turbulent Garcia years, Fujimori was widely criticized for
   what his opponents describe as an authoritarian regime, aided by the
   now imprisoned Vladimiro Montesinos, the former head of Peru's
   intelligence service, Servicio de Inteligencia Nacional (SIN).

   Following a controversial third "re-election", mounting corruption,
   wide-spread political violence and gross human rights violations,
   Fujimori was forced to call for early elections. After his party lost
   control of the Peruvian Parliament, he was forced to resign from the
   Presidency of Peru. Returning from the APEC summit in Brunei, Fujimori
   requested political asylum in Japan on the grounds of his Japanese
   citizenship.

   In the turmoil following Fujimori's precipitous fall from power,
   Valentín Paniagua was selected as the transitional President. Following
   a hotly contested election, Alejandro Toledo became President
   (2001-2006), narrowly defeating Alan García (2006).

   In 2006, Alan García was once again elected President, defeating
   nationalist candidate Ollanta Humala. After his political defeat,
   Ollanta Humala has faced several trials for his involvement in the
   fight against Sendero Luminoso and his role as opposition leader has
   faded away. Former President Alberto Fujimori (currently in Chile) is
   awaiting extradition proceedings against him by the Peruvian government
   , while at the same time his political party Alliance for the Future
   gathered an important number of parliament members in the last
   elections. Former Presidents Alejandro Toledo and Valentín Paniagua are
   represented in congress with the Peru Possible- Centre Front Alliance.

Politics of Peru

   The formal politics of Peru takes place in a framework of a
   presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President
   of Peru is both head of state and head of government, and of a
   pluriform multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the
   government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the
   Congress. The Judiciary is supposed to be independent of the executive
   and the legislature.

Cities

   Map of Peru
   Enlarge
   Map of Peru

   The primary urban centers include:
     * Lima (the capital, the primary economic and cultural centre)
     * Arequipa
     * Trujillo
     * Chiclayo
     * Callao (Peru´s largest port)
     * Cusco (the modern capital of the ancient Inca Empire)
     * Piura
     * Tacna
     * Ica
     * Puno
     * Chimbote
     * Huancayo
     * Huacho
     * Cajamarca
     * Pucallpa
     * Iquitos
     * Yurimaguas
     * Tarapoto
     * Moyobamba

Geography

   Peruvian Amazon Basin
   Enlarge
   Peruvian Amazon Basin

   At 1,285,220 km² (496,193 mi²) , Peru is the world's 20th-largest
   country (after Mongolia). It is comparable in size to Chad, and is
   nearly twice the size of the US state of Texas.

   Peru's territory has an area of 1,285,216 km². It is bordered by
   Ecuador and Colombia on the north, Brazil and Bolivia to the east, and
   finally Chile and Bolivia to the south. To the west lies the Pacific
   Ocean. Its population has more than 27 million inhabitants that speak
   Spanish, with others bilingual in Quechua or Aymara and other native
   languages.

   Eastern Peru consists mostly of the moist tropical jungles of the
   Amazon Rainforest, the largest on Earth. In the southeast along the
   border with Bolivia lies Lake Titicaca — the highest navigable lake in
   the world. The Altiplano plateau is a dry basin located along the
   slopes of the Andes in southeastern Peru. Along the border with Chile,
   the Atacama Desert is the driest place on the planet.
   Valle del Colca, Arequipa
   Enlarge
   Valle del Colca, Arequipa

   The Peruvian Sea is home to a large amount and variety of fish life.
   The Sechura Desert is located in northwestern Peru along the Pacific
   coastline.

   The main rivers of Peru include the Ucayali, Marañón, Amazon (which is
   formed by the confluence of the Marañón and the Ucayali), Putumayo,
   Pastaza, Napo, Jurua, and the Purus.
   View of the beach in Punta Sal
   Enlarge
   View of the beach in Punta Sal

Physiographic regions

   When the Spanish arrived, they divided Peru (because of political
   reasons) into three main regions: the Coastal region, which is bounded
   by the Pacific Ocean; the Highlands, that is located in the Andean
   Heights, and the Jungle, which is located on the Amazonian Jungle.
   These words are still used in Peru. However, Javier Pulgar Vidal, a
   geographer who studied the biogeographic reality of the Peruvian
   territory for a long time, proposed the creation of eight Natural
   Regions. In 1941, the III General Assembly of the Pan-American
   Institute of Geography and History approved this motion.
   Peruvian Physiographic Regions
   Enlarge
   Peruvian Physiographic Regions

   These eight Peruvian regions are:
     * Chala or Coast (a subtropical desert in the central and southern
       coast and a changing tropical savanna in the north coast)
     * Yunga (consisting of subtropical arid fertile valleyes)
     * Quechua
     * Suni or Jalca
     * Puna
     * Janca
     * Rupa - Rupa or High Jungle
     * Omagua or Low Jungle

Natural and cultural Peruvian heritage

   The Peruvian constitution of 1993 recognised the natural resources and
   ecosystem variety of its country as a heritage. In 1900, the National
   System of Natural Areas that are protected by the Peruvian Government
   (SINANPE) was created. This entity depends on the National Institute of
   Natural Resources (INRENA). They also created a map of protection and
   preservation of historical – cultural heritage and nature.

   This map has 49 natural areas (13% of the country surface) that are
   preserved by the Government: 8 national parks, 8 national reservations,
   6 national sanctuaries, 3 historical sanctuaries, 4 national forests, 6
   protection forests, 1 communal reservation, 2 hunting enclosed lands
   and 11 reserved zones.

   National Parks are places where the wild flora and fauna are protected
   and preserved. Natural resources exploitation and human settlements are
   forbidden.

National parks

     * Cutervo It is the oldest Peruvian National Park. It was created in
       1961 and is located in Cajamarca. There are many caves in this park
       such as San Andres Cave, where the guacharo lives - a bird in
       danger of extinction.
     * Tingo Maria It is located in Huanuco. Its principal attraction is
       the Cueva de las Lechuzas ( Owl Cave) where the guacharos live.
     * Manu It is located in Madre de Dios and Cuzco. Its the most
       representative area of the Amazon biodiversity. In 1977, UNESCO
       recognised it as a Reserve of Biosphere and in 1987, it was
       pronounced as Natural Heritage of Humanity.
     * Huascaran It is located in Ancash. It was also pronounced as
       Natural Heritage of Humanity and recognised as Reserve of Biosphere
       Core. The highest snow-covered mountain is here (which name is also
       Huascaran and has 6 768 m.). This park is the habitat of the Puya
       Raimondi, the American panther or puma, the jaguar, the llama, the
       guanaco, the Marsh Deer, the Peruvian tapir, the Peruvian Piedtail,
       a hummingbird species, and many kinds of ducks.
     * Cerros de Amotape (Amotape Hills) It is located in Piura and
       Tumbes. It has a lot of dry-climate forests and some endangered
       species like the American Crocodile.
     * Abiseo River It is located in San Martín. UNESCO pronounced it as
       Natural and Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
     * Yanachaga-Chemillen It is located in Pasco. It is a preservation
       zone of tropical forests that are at 4 800 m. The Palcazu river,
       Huancabamba river, Pozuzo river and their affluents flows through
       this National Park. Some native communities still live in here.
       There are also some archaeological fields from the Inca and Yanesha
       cultures.
     * Bahuaja-Sonene It is located in Madre de Dios. It has the tropical
       forests of Puno, the Heath Pampas and a part from the Reservation
       Zone Tambopata-Candamo.

National reservations, protection and spreading areas of wild fauna

   The National Reservation of the Lomas de Lachay, Lima, Peru.
   Enlarge
   The National Reservation of the Lomas de Lachay, Lima, Peru.
     * Pampa Galeras – Barbara D’Achille It is located in Ayacucho and it
       is the habitat of the vicuña.
     * Junin It is located in Junin. One of its main purposes is to
       protect the ecosystem and biodiversity of Lake Junin.
     * Paracas It is located in Ica. Its main purpose is to preserve the
       sea ecosystem and protect the historical - cultural heritage.
     * Lachay It is located in Lima. Its main purpose is to restore and
       protect the ecosystem of the Lomas de Lachay (Lachay hills).
     * Pacaya-Samiria It is located in Loreto. Its main purpose is to
       preserve the ecosystems of the Omagua Region and to promote the
       indigenous towns.
     * Salinas and Aguada Blanca They are located in Arequipa and
       Moquegua. Their main purpose is to preserve the flora, fauna and
       the landscapes formation.
     * Calipuy It is located in La Libertad. Its main purpose is to
       protect the guanaco’s populations.
     * Titicaca It is located in Puno. Its main purpose is to preserve the
       ecosystems and landscapes of the Titicaca lake.

National sanctuaries

     * Huayllay
     * Calipuy
     * Lagunas de Mejia (The Mejia lagoon)
     * Ampay
     * Manglares de Tumbes (The mangrove swamps of Tumbes)
     * Manglares de Vice, found in the Sechura Province of Piura Region
       (smaller than the Manglares de Tumbes National Sanctuary, are the
       southernmost mangrove swamp system in the Pacific region)
     * Tabacones Namballe

Historical sanctuaries

     * Chacramarca
     * Pampas de Ayacucho (The Pampas of Ayacucho)
     * Machu Picchu

National forests

     * Biabo Cordillera Azul (The Biabo Blue Mountain Range)
     * Mariscal Cáceres
     * Pastaza–Morona–Marañon
     * Alexander von Humboldt

Protection forests

     * Aledaño Bocatoma del Canal Nuevo Imperial (Aledaño Intake of the
       New Imperial Canal)
     * Puquio Santa Rosa (Santa Rosa spring of water)
     * Pui–Pui
     * San Matías–San Carlos
     * Alto Mayo
     * Pagaibamba

Communal reservation

     * Yanesha

Hunting enclosed lands

     * Sunchubamba
     * El Angolo

Reserved zones

     * Manu
     * Laquipampa
     * Apurimac
     * Pantanos de Villa (The swamps of Villa)
     * Tambopata–Candamo
     * Batán Grande
     * Algarrobal El Moro (El Moro carob tree groved)
     * Tumbes
     * Güeppí
     * Chancaybaños
     * Aymuru Lupaca

Economy

   Buildings in San Isidro, Lima's largest financial district
   Enlarge
   Buildings in San Isidro, Lima's largest financial district
   Aerial view of La Punta, Callao
   Enlarge
   Aerial view of La Punta, Callao

   Since 1990, the Peruvian economy has undergone considerable free market
   reforms, from legalizing parts of the informal sector to significant
   privatizations in the mining, electric/power, and telecommunications
   industries. Aided by foreign investment and cooperation between the
   former Fujimori administration, the IMF, and the World Bank, economic
   growth was rapid in 1994– 97 and inflation was kept low.

   Still, some say that Peru's reforms have not led to sustained economic
   progress. According to the Centre for Economic and Policy Research, a
   U.S.-based think tank, "Income per person in Peru – the most basic
   economic measure of living standards – is currently about the same as
   it was 25 years ago. This is a remarkable long-term economic failure."

   In 1998, El Niño's impact on agriculture, the financial crisis in Asia,
   and instability in Brazilian markets undercut growth. 1999 was another
   lean year for Peru, with the aftermath of El Niño and the Asian
   financial crisis having an avdersely effect on the market economy. Lima
   did manage to complete negotiations for an Extended Fund Facility with
   the IMF in June 1999, although it subsequently had to renegotiate the
   targets. Pressure on spending grew in the run-up to the 2000 elections.

   Growth up to the year 2005 has been realized by construction,
   investment, domestic demand and exports. Peru's economy has become one
   of the most liberal market economies in Latin America. The country's
   petroleum, natural gas and power industries are expected to increase
   due to relatively high domestic and foreign influx of capital in the
   tourism, agriculture, mining and construction sectors since 1995.

   In April 2006, Peru signed a trade agreement with the United States
   (known as the Peru Trade Promotion Agreement, becoming the first
   country in the Andean Community of Nations ( Comunidad Andina de
   Naciones, CAN) to sign it. As of June 2006, Peru's Congress has already
   approved the agreement and the pact awaits approval by the U.S.
   Congress. Peru is currently negotiating trade agreements with Chile,
   Mexico, Singapore and India.

   Peru has free trade agreements with the Andean Community, which is
   composed of Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia and Venezuela. It also has free
   trade agreements with many of the countries in Mercosur as well as
   Thailand, and during the recent APEC summit, Peru declared intentions
   to sign free trade agreements with China, Japan, and South Korea.

   Peru is also seeking a free trade agreement with the European Union.
   These negotiations will greatly expand the markets in which the
   Peruvian products are traded. Peru has potential to export agricultural
   products, textiles, clothing, shoes, petroleum derivatives, natural
   gas, minerals, as well as fish and seafood products, tourism, and
   manufactured goods.

   In 2005 Peruvian exports were worth US$ 17.1 billion (an increase of
   34.6% compared to 2004) and it is expected to grow 35% for this year
   reaching US$ 23.5 billion at the end of 2006. The markets of Peru have
   grown in all sectors (energy, construction, commerce, fishing,
   manufacturing, tourism, etc) in 2005 growing over 6.67% (one the
   fastest growth rates of market economies in South America) and it is
   projected to grow 7% for 2006.

   For the next five years (until 2010) the Peruvian government has
   registered more than US$ 10 billion in private investment (both
   domestic and foreign) in the mining and energy sectors, as well as
   investments of US$ 15 billion in other sectors such as industry,
   commerce, tourism, seafood and agriculture, which will keep the economy
   growing annually at levels of 5% or more.

   Poverty in Peru is high, with a poverty threshold level of 48% of the
   total population. However, the level is reducing slowly and it is
   expected to diminish to 20% of the population within 10 years.

Military

                                                     Peruvian Armed Forces
           Image:DivisionBlindada.jpg T-55 Tanks from the Armored Division
                                                         Military manpower
   Military age 18 years of age for non-compulsory military service (1999)
                                   Availability males age 18-49: 6,647,874
                                  females age 18-49: 6,544,408 (2005 est.)
                       Fit for military service males age 18-49: 4,938,417
                                  females age 18-49: 5,278,511 (2005 est.)
                             Reaching military age annually males: 277,105
                                              females: 269,799 (2005 est.)
                                                     Military expenditures
                                  Dollar figure $829.3 million (2003 est.)
                                           Percent of GDP 1.4% (2003 est.)

   The Military branches of the Republic of Peru are as follows:
     * Ejército del Perú ( Peruvian Army)
     * Marina de Guerra del Perú ( Peruvian Navy, includes Naval Air,
       Naval Infantry and Coast Guard)
     * Fuerza Aérea del Perú ( Peruvian Air Force)

   In the last few years social stability has brought the army back to its
   original objectives - control of the national sovereignty on the sea,
   land and air, as well as to protect the people, economy, and
   infrastructure from threats from both inside and outside of the
   country.

Peruvian Army

   Headquartered in Lima, it has a strength of 75 thousand troops divided
   in four military regions with headquarters in Piura, Lima, Arequipa and
   Iquitos. Every military region assigned several brigades of which there
   are different types, including infantry, cavalry and armored. There are
   also several groups and battalions which operate independently.

   The equipment of the Peruvian Army includes several types of tanks (
   T-55 and AMX-13), armoured personnel carriers ( M-113, UR-416),
   artillery ( D30 howitzer, M101 howitzer, M109 howitzer, M114 howitzer),
   antiaircraft systems ( ZSU-23-4 Shilka) and helicopters ( Mil Mi-2, Mil
   Mi-17).

Peruvian Navy

   De Ruyter class cruiser Almirante Grau (CLM 81)
   Enlarge
   De Ruyter class cruiser Almirante Grau (CLM 81)

   Peruvian Navy (Marina de Guerra del Perú) is organized in five naval
   zones headquartered in Piura, Lima, Arequipa, Iquitos and Pucallpa. It
   has a strength of around 25 000 troops divided between the Pacific
   Operations and the Amazon Operations General Commands and the Coast
   Guard.

   The Pacific fleet flagship is the cruiser BAP Almirante Grau (CLM-81),
   named for the XIX-century Peruvian Admiral which fought in the War of
   the Pacific (1879-1883). The fleet also includes 8 Lupo class frigates
   (two of which were built in Peru during the 80's), 1 Daring class
   destroyer, 6 PR-72 class corvettes, 4 Terrebonne Parish class landing
   ships, 6 Type 209/1200 class German-built diesel submarines (the
   biggest submarine force in South America), as well as patrol vessels,
   tankers and cargo ships.

   Peruvian Navy has also a naval aviation force, several naval infantry
   battalions and special forces units.

Peruvian Air Force

   On May 20, 1929, the aviation divisions of the Peruvian army and navy
   were merged into the Peruvian Aviation Corps (CAP, Cuerpo de Aviación
   del Peru). In 1950, the corps was reorganized again and became the
   Peruvian Air Force (FAP, Fuerza Aerea del Peru).

   The Peruvian Air Force (Fuerza Aerea del Peru - FAP) is divided into 6
   wing areas, headquartered in Piura, Chiclayo, Lima, Arequipa, Rioja and
   Iquitos. With a strength of 35 thousand troops, the FAP counts in its
   arsenal MiG-29, MiG-25, Mirage 2000, Mirage M5 and SU-22 supersonic
   aircraft.

   Also, it has SU-25 antitank aircraft, as well as MI-24 antitank
   helicopters, MI-8, MI-17 transport helicopters, and Aermacchi, A-37
   Cessna and SuperTucano Embraer subsonic aircraft.

   In 1995, the FAP took part in the Cenepa War against Ecuador covering
   operations by the army and navy. After the war, the FAP began acquiring
   new material, especially MiG-29 fighters and Su-25 attack fighters
   which are, along with the Mirage 2000 fighters, the main combat
   elements of the FAP.

Demographics

Ethnography

   El Señor de los Milagros Procession
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   El Señor de los Milagros Procession
   Urarina shaman, 1988
   Enlarge
   Urarina shaman, 1988

   Peru is one of only three Latin American countries which have their
   largest population segment consisting of indigenous Amerindians, with
   around 45% of all Peruvians classified as such. Most are found in the
   southern Andes, though a large portion are also to be found in the
   southern and central coast due to the massive internal labor migration
   from remote Andean regions to coastal cities, especially Lima, during
   the past four decades. While the Andes are the "heart" of indigenous
   Peru, the country's Amazonian region represents nearly 60% of Peruvian
   national territory and harbors a wide variety of indigenous groups that
   is rivaled only by its biodiversity. These tropical lowlands, however,
   are sparsely populated.

   The two major indigenous or ethnic groups are the Quechuas (belonging
   to various cultural subgroups), followed by the Aymaras, mostly found
   in the extreme southern Andes. A large proportion of the indigenous
   population who live in the Andean highlands still speak Quechua or
   Aymara, and have vibrant cultural traditions, some which were part of
   the Inca Empire, arguably the most advanced agricultural civilization
   in the world. Literally dozens of indigenous cultures are also
   dispersed throughout the country beyond the Andes Mountains and in the
   Amazon basin.

   Peru's Amazonian region is rapidly becoming urbanized. Important urban
   centers include Iquitos, Nauta, Puerto Maldonado, Pucallpa and
   Yurimaguas. This region is home to numerous indigenous peoples, though
   they do not constitute a large proportion of the total population.
   Examples of indigenous peoples residing in eastern Peru include the
   Shipibo, Urarina, Cocama, and Aguaruna, to name just a few.

   At the national level, mestizos constitute the second largest segment
   of the population, at around 37% of the total population. The term
   traditionally denotes people of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry,
   and most Peruvian mestizos are of this combination, but other lineages
   (most notably African) are also present, in varying degrees, in some
   segements of the mestizo population. Most mestizos are urban dwellers
   and can be seen in coastal cities of the north coast, where they show
   stronger Spanish inheritance, the central coast like Lima Region,
   Cajamarca Region, and also Arequipa Region.

   Around 15% of the population is classified as " White", and they are
   for the most part criollos, the relatively unmixed descendants of the
   colonial Spanish colonizers. Descendants of Italian and other small
   group of German, Yugoslavs and other Europeans represent a relatively
   smaller proportion of the overall White population. The majority of the
   White criollos live in the largest cities, concentrated usually the
   northern coastal citites of Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, and of course
   the capital Lima. The only southern city with a significant White
   population is Arequipa. To the north Cajamarca and San Martin are also
   cities with a strong spanish influence.

   The remaining 3% of the population is of black African ancestry. The
   Afro-Peruvians, a legacy of Peru's history as an importer of slaves
   during the colonial period. Today also mulattos (mixed African and
   European) and zambos (mixed African and Amerindian) constitude an
   important part of the population as well, especially in Piura, Tumbes,
   Lambayeque, Lima and Ica regions.

   The Afro-Peruvian population is concentrated mostly in coastal cities
   south of Lima, such as that of those found in the Ica Region, in cities
   like Cañete, Chincha, Ica, Nazca and Acari in the border with the
   Arequipa Region. Other large but poorley promoted segement of
   Afro-Peruvian presence is in the Yunga regions (west and just below the
   Andean chain of northern Peru) where sugarcane, lemon and mango
   production is still of importance, that is Piura and Lambayeque.
   Important communities are found all over the Morropon Province, such as
   in the city of Chulucanas, Yapatera town of the same city, and other
   even smaller farming towns like Pabur or La Matanza and even in the
   mountainous region near Canchaque. Further south, the colonial city of
   Zaña or farming towns like Capote and Tuman in Lambayeque are also
   important regions with Afro-Peruvian presence.

   There is also a large presence of Asians, primarily Japanese and
   Chinese, that constitute some 3% of the population, which in proportion
   to the overall population is the largest of any Latin American nation.

   Peru has the second largest population of people of Japanese descent in
   Latin America after Brazil and the largest population of Cantonese
   descent in Latin America. Historic communities inhabited by people of
   Chinese descent are found throughout the Peruvian upper Amazon,
   including cities such as Yurimaguas, Nauta, Iquitos and the north
   central coast (Lambayeque and Trujillo). In contrast to the Japanese
   community in Peru, the Chinese appear to have intermarried much more
   since they came to work in the rice fields during the Viceroyalty and
   to replace the African slaves, during the abolition of slavery itself.

Language

   Peru's official languages are Spanish and, according to the Peruvian
   Constitution of 1993, Amerindian languages such as Quechua, Aymara and
   other such indigenous languages in areas where they predominate. Today,
   Spanish is spoken by some 80.3% of the population, and is the language
   used by government, media, and in education and formal commerce. There
   has been an increasing and organized effort to teach Quechua in public
   schools in the areas where Quechua is spoken.

   According to official sources, the use of Spanish has increased while
   the knowledge and use of indigenous languages has decreased
   considerably during the last four decades ( 1960- 2000). At the
   beginning of the 1960s some 39% of the total Peruvian population were
   registered as speakers of indigenous languages, but by the 1990s the
   figures show a considerable decline in the use of Quechua, Aymara and
   other indigenous languages, when only 28% is registered as
   Quechua-speaking (16% of whom are reported to be bilingual in Spanish)
   and Spanish-speakers increased to 72%.

   For 2005, government figures place Spanish as being spoken by 80.3% of
   the population, but among Amerindian languages another decrease is
   registered. Of the indigenous languages, Quechua remains the most
   spoken, and even today is used by some 16.2% of the total Peruvian
   population, or a third of Peru's total indigenous population. The
   number of Aymara-speakers and other indigenous languages is placed at
   3%, and foreign languages 0.2%.

   The drastic decline in use and knowledge of indigenous languages is
   largely attributed to the recent demographic factors. The urbanization
   and assimilation of Peru's Amerindian plurality into the
   Hispanic-mestizo culture, as well as the new socioeconomic factors
   associated with class structure have given privilege to the use of
   Spanish at the expense of the Amerindian languages which were spoken by
   the majority of the population less than a century ago.

   The major obstacle to a more widespread use of the Quechua language is
   the fact that multiple dialects of this language exist. The variations
   among these Quechua dialects are as pronounced as - for example - the
   differences between Spanish, Portuguese and Italian. Quechua, along
   with Aymara and the minor indigenous languages, was originally and
   remains essentially an oral language. Therefore, there is a lack of
   modern media which use it: for example books, newspapers, software,
   magazines, technical journals, etc. However, non-governmental
   organizations as well as state sponsored groups are involved in
   projects to edit and translate major works into the Quechua language;
   for instance, in late 2005 a superb version of Don Quixote was
   presented in Quechua.

   The percentage of native speakers of Quechua who are illiterate has
   been decreasing lately, as 86.87% of the Peruvian population is
   literate. More encouraging, nationwide literacy rate of youth aged 15
   to 24 years is 96.8%.

Culture

   Like its rich national history, the popular culture of contemporary
   Peru is the result of a fusion of cultures, constituted primarily from
   the cultural legacy of the indigenous groups, and Spanish and African
   colonists. This cultural mixture has been further enriched by the
   contributions of other immigrant groups, particularly Asians and
   non-Iberian Europeans.

Peruvian artistic creation

   The Pachacamac Temple. The photo was taken in 2002.
   Enlarge
   The Pachacamac Temple. The photo was taken in 2002.
   Panoramic View of Cusco from Sacsayhuaman
   Enlarge
   Panoramic View of Cusco from Sacsayhuaman

   Peruvian cultural patrimony has its origin in the magnificent Andean
   civilizations, which flourished before the Spaniards’ arrival. Peru's
   archaeological treasures are evidence of many significant achievements
   comparable to those of other great civilizations.

   Some of the first artistic manifestations reflecting more advanced
   intellectual and technological evolution are artifacts found in the
   deposits of Chavín de Huántar and Cupisnique. These are examples of
   symbolic and religious art including gold and silver work,
   ceramics,architecture and stone sculpture. These sites date as far back
   as the 14th century BC and 11th century BC, respectively.

   Between the 8th century BC and 1st century AD, the Paracas Cavernas and
   Paracas Necrópolis cultures developed. The Paracas Cavernas culture
   produced beautiful polychrome ceramics with religious representations
   as well as monochrome ceramics. The Paracas Necrópolis culture is
   characterized by its delicate fabrics in complex styles.

   In the period between the 3rd century BC and 7th century AD, the urban
   culture known as Mochica developed in Lambayeque. Nazca culture also
   developed in this period in the valley of río Grande, in Ica. In
   Mochica culture, the magnificent Huaca del Sol and Huaca de la Luna,
   Huaca Cao Viejo and Huaca El Brujo and the Huaca Rajada of Sipan are
   worth mentioning. They are notable for their cultivation in terraces
   and hydraulic engineering, as well as some of the most original
   ceramics, textiles, and pictorial and sculptural art in the Andean
   world.

   The Wari civilization, which flourished between the 8th century and
   12th century AD, was based in Ayacucho. This civilization may have been
   the first Andean culture to define a planned urban layout. Such a
   concept was later expanded to zones like Pachacamac, Cajamarquilla,
   Wari Willca and others. Tiahuanaco culture developed by the borders of
   lake Titicaca between the 9th century and 13th century AD. This culture
   introduced monumental lithic architecture and sculpture as well as
   military urbanism. These advances in architecture were possible thanks
   to the discovery of bronze for making tools.

   The Chimú town improvement on the principle of urban architecture. This
   civilization built the city of Chan Chan in the valley of the Moche
   river, in La Libertad, between the 14th and 15th centuries AD. The
   chimú were also skillful goldsmiths and made remarkable works of
   hydraulic engineering.

   The Inca Civilization incorporated, and in many cases perfected, many
   of the cultural techniques of the civilizations that preceded it. There
   are many examples of original Inca architecture and engineering that
   have outlasted later Spanish colonial structures. In this regard, the
   rich Inca heritage can still be observed in cities like Cuzco, the
   fortress of Sacsahuaman, Ollantaytambo, Machu Picchu, and extensive
   stone roads that united Cuzco with the four cardinal points of the Inca
   Empire. The Spanish conquest displaced, not without violence, native
   artistic practices and concepts, although in many cases, it made for
   enriching hybrids of traditional Spanish and native art.

Architecture

   Peruvian architecture is a conjunction of European styles exposed to
   the influence of indigenous imagery. Two of the most well-known
   examples of the Renaissance period are the Cathedral and the church of
   Santa Clara of Cuzco. After this period, the mestization reached its
   richer expression in the Baroque. Some examples of this Baroque period
   are the convent of San Francisco de Lima, the church of the Compañía
   and the facade of the University of Cuzco and, overall, the churches of
   San Agustín and Santa Rosa of Arequipa, its more beautiful exponents.

   The independence war left a creative emptiness that Neoclassicism of
   French inspiration could just fill. The XX century is characterized by
   the eclecticism, to which the constructive functionalism has been
   against. The most considerable example is San Martin Plaza in Lima.

Sculpture and painting

   Cathedral of Lima facing the Plaza de Armas
   Enlarge
   Cathedral of Lima facing the Plaza de Armas

   Peruvian sculpture and painting began to define themselves from the
   ateliers founded by monks, who were strongly influenced by the
   Sevillian Baroque School. In this background, the stalls of the
   Cathedral choir, the fountain of the Main Square of Lima and great part
   of the colonial production were registered.

   The artistic crossbreeding was more intense in the pictorial creation.
   This crossbreeding gathered, without ambages, the native heritage and
   materialized, without incisions, the historical continuity. You are
   able to see this in the portrait of prisoner Atahualpa, from Diego de
   Mora, or in the linens of the Italians Mateo Pérez de Alesio and
   Angelino Medoro, the Spanish Francisco Bejarano and J. de Illescas and
   the Creole J. Rodriguez.

   During XVII and XVIII centuries, the Baroque also dominated the field
   of plastic arts. In the XIX century, the French neoclassic and romantic
   currents found his best representatives in L. Montero, the Ignacio
   Merino and Francisco Masias.

   In the XX century, the establishment of the Fine Arts School of Lima (
   1919) printed the decisive impulse on Peruvian sculpture and painting.
   In sculpture, we have some remarkable names like Luis Agurto, L.
   Valdettaro, Joaquin Roca Rey, J. Piqueras, Alberto Guzmán, Victor
   Delfín and F. Sánchez. Between the painters, we have Daniel Hernández,
   R. Grau, Cesar Quispez Asin and Jose Sabogal. Sabogal headed the
   indigenous movement. This movemevent was one of the props of the
   Peruvian contemporary painting, which more representative names are
   Fernando de Szyszlo, Alberto Davila, Armando Villegas, Sabino
   Springett, Victor Humareda, M. A. Cuadros, Angel Chavez, Milner
   Cajahuaringa, Arturo Kubotta, Venancio Shinki, Alberto Quintanilla, G.
   Chavez, Tilsa Tsuchiya, David Herskowitz, Oscar Allain and Carlos
   Revilla.

Literature

   In the history of Peruvian literature, the oral indigenous tradition
   and the technical resources of writing (incorporated by Spaniards)
   converge in each other. From the beginning, it was possible to gather
   and to express the different and complex cultural realities that
   entered in conflict immediately after the conquest.

   Quechua and Aymara literature was transmitted in an oral way. It was
   linked to religious, agrarian, affectionate, festive or funeral rites.
   These characteristics became into certain forms of poetry or prose, as
   it is observed in the first historical chronicles of the Inca Garcilaso
   de la Vega ( Los comentarios reales) or Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala (
   la Nueva crónica y buen gobierno) and in the identification between the
   yaravies and the patriotic and romantic poetry. One of the most
   outstanding exponents here was Mariano Melgar.

   Later, the hegemony of Creole oligarchy in the Peruvian society favored
   the abandonment of the indigenous forms in favour of the European ones.
   Then the neoclassicists arose like Manuel Asencio y Segura and Felipe
   Pardo y Aliaga. They held themselves almost until the end of the XIX
   century. At this time, the romantic current was imposed thanked to the
   works of Carlos Augusto Salaverry and Jose Arnaldo Marquez, between
   others. The general crisis derived from the War of the Pacific gave
   place to the Modernism. Its best exponents were Jose Santos Chocano and
   José María Eguren. After them, the Avant-gardism current popped up
   strongly impelled by the magazines: Colónida and Amauta. Amauta
   magazine was founded in 1926 by José Carlos Mariátegui. Between its
   collaborators was César Vallejo. Meanwhile the Indigenous current in
   poetry was reborn thanked to Luis Fabio Xammar. The avant-gardist
   writers were fragmenting in different lyric proposals like the ones of
   Xavier Abril, Alberto Hidalgo, Sebastian Salazar Bondy, Carlos Germán
   Belli, and others. They were opening new and diverse expressive fields.

   In the XIX century, Peruvian prose passed from the costumbrismo
   current: Manuel Ascensio Segura and Ricardo Palma, to the Modernism
   current: Manuel González Prada and José Santos Chocano. In the XX
   century, the indigenous prose reached some of its culminating moments
   with Ciro Alegría and José María Arguedas, Sebastián Salazar Bondy,
   Manuel Scorza and Julio Ramón Ribeyro. Without leaving the realistic
   approach, Mario Vargas Llosa. Some of the most remarkable names in
   poetry are Emilio Adolfo Westphalen, Jorge Eduardo Eielson, Carlos
   Germán Belli, Antonio Cisneros, Wáshington Delgado, Marco Martos,
   Carmen Ollé and in narrative: Miguel Gutiérrez, Gregorio Martínez,
   Alonso Cueto, Guillermo Niño de Guzmán, between others.

Art

   Iglesia de la Compañía, Cuzco
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   Iglesia de la Compañía, Cuzco
   The Inca stonghold of Sacsayhuaman near Cuzco
   Enlarge
   The Inca stonghold of Sacsayhuaman near Cuzco

   The art of Peru was shaped by the melting between Spanish and
   Amerindian cultures. During pre-Columbian times, Peru was one of the
   major centers of artistic expression in The Americas, where Pre-Inca
   cultures, such as Chavín, Moche, Paracas, Huari (Wari), Nazca, Chimu,
   and Tiahuanaco developed high-quality pottery, textiles, jewelry, and
   sculpture.

   Drawing upon earlier cultures, the Incas continued to maintain these
   crafts but made even more impressive achievements in architecture. The
   mountain town of Machu Picchu and the buildings at Cuzco are excellent
   examples of Inca architectural design.

   During the colonial period, Spanish baroque fused with the rich Inca
   tradition to produce mestizo art. The Cuzco school of largely anonymous
   Indian artists followed the Spanish baroque tradition with influence
   from the Italian, Flemish, and French schools.

   Painter Francisco Fierro made a distinctive contribution to this school
   with his portrayals of typical events, manners, and customs of
   mid-19th-century Peru. Francisco Lazo, forerunner of the indigenous
   school of painters, also achieved fame for his portraits.

   Peru has passed early 20th century brought "indigenismo," expressed in
   a new awareness of Indian culture. Since World War II, Peruvian
   writers, artists, and intellectuals such as Cesar Vallejo and José
   María Arguedas have participated in worldwide intellectual and artistic
   movements, drawing especially on U.S. and European trends.

   In the decade after 1932, the "indigenous school" of painting headed by
   José Sabogal dominated the cultural scene in Peru. A subsequent
   reaction among Peruvian artists led to the beginning of modern Peruvian
   painting. Sabogal's resignation as director of the National School of
   Arts in 1943 coincided with the return of several Peruvian painters
   from Europe who revitalised "universal" and international styles of
   painting in Peru.

   During the 1960s, Fernando de Szyszlo, an internationally recognised
   Peruvian artist, became the main advocate for abstract painting and
   pushed Peruvian art toward modernism. Peru remains an art-producing
   centre with painters such as Fernando de Szyslo, Gerardo Chavez, José
   Tola, Alberto Quintanilla, and José Carlos Ramos, along with sculptor
   Victor Delfín, gaining international stature.

   Promising young artists continue to develop now that Peru's economy
   allows more promotion of the arts.

Crafts

   Between the most spread crafts in Peru, there are the ceramics (either
   artistic or utilitarian), the carving, the silversmiths' work, the
   leather repoussage, the straw weaving, and of course the textile work,
   emphasizing the colorful weavings made of alpaca's wool.

Folkloric expressions

   Pre-Hispanic Peruvian Andean cultures were especially bound to musical
   artistic expressions. In fact, almost all agricultural communal works
   were accompanied by music and singings (generically called in Quechua
   language: taqui). The ethnic diversity of ancient Peru made diverse
   traditions and customs coexist across the time. They were strongly
   determinants of the rich development of Post-Hispanic Peruvian
   folklore.

   At the present time, different musical expressions (dances and songs),
   folkloric festivities (religious or not), arts and crafts, gastronomy
   and other activities (that varies according to different regions) are
   important expressions of Peruvian and Latin-American cultural heritage.

Music

   The Quena, a Peruvian wind instrument typical of Andean music
   Enlarge
   The Quena, a Peruvian wind instrument typical of Andean music

   Like its geography (28 of 32 world climates), its cuisine and its
   various ethnicities, Peruvian music is very diverse. Much of Peru's
   music is derived from Andean, Andalusian Spanish and African roots.
   Modern Peruvian music and Amazon influenced music is also common in
   Peru. As of 2006 in Peru, most young peruvians in the cities listen to
   reggeaton. Tropical Latin music such as Salsa and Merengue is very
   popular too in Lima and Callao. Local singers include Antonio Cartagena
   and Willi Rivera among others. Rock in Spanish and English, pop in
   Spanish and English, and Ballads are also popular among large sectros
   of the populations with Pedro Suarez Vertiz being the most popular
   rocker in Peru. Cumbias and its peruvian cousin technocumbias are
   popular among immigrants from the country side and their descendants to
   Lima and other cities in the coasts. In cities like Lima and Arequipa
   music in English is commonly listen and played in Top 40 Radio stations
   in addition to Reggeaton and Rock in Spanish. During the 80's and 90's
   Rock in Spanish and English, and Salsa were the most common music
   styles in Lima and other major cities.

   The Pre-Hispanic Andean musicians mostly used wind instruments such as
   the quena, the pinkillo, the erke, the antara or siku (also called
   zampoña), the pututo or pototo, etc. They also used diverse
   membranophone instruments such as the tinya (hand drum), the wankar,
   instrument of big dimensions, the pomatinyas - made of puma's skin-,
   and the runatinyas - made of human's skin-. The runatinya was also used
   in battles.

   With the Spanish conquest, new instruments arrived like harps, guitars,
   vihuelas, bandurrias, lutes, etc. Due to these instruments, new
   crossbred Andean instruments appeared. These crossbred instruments are
   still in used nowadays: the Andean harp and the charango. The sounding
   box of the charango is made of the armadillo's shell.

   The cultural crossbreeding did not limit itself to the contact of
   Indigenous and European cultures. The African slaves' contribution was
   demonstrated in rhythms and percussion instruments. This influence is
   visible in musical forms like festejo, zamacueca, etc.

   Coastal music is rooted in the haciendas and the callejones of cities
   such as Lima, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, Tumbes and Ica. It involves a
   creole version of the Spanish guitar and the famous Peruvian instrument
   Cajon drum.

Andean Peruvian music

   Andean music is rooted in the traditional native music, the Spanish
   orquestal and European Church musicals. The southern Andean region is
   famous for the Huayno, a mestizo happy chant that involves Charango
   guitar, beautifully-toned lamenting vocals and sometimes the Andean
   Harp. The Huayno Ayacuchano is probably the most famous of its styles
   since it is played on creole and even Spanish guitar, adding to its
   feel an even a more soulful and romantic expression.

   Cusco, Puno and Apurimac have a more pure native feel to their music
   whom even incorporate violins. Famous tuens are the Muliza and Valicha
   Cusqueña, whom are also very romantic and melancolic. Other Andean
   rhythms involve a fusion of European Church music and Huaynos such as
   the known song " El Cóndor Pasa", a traditional Peruvian song
   popularized in the United States by the folk duo Simon & Garfunkel and
   featured in the movie " The Graduate". The original composition
   consists of a Yaraví, followed by an Inca " Pasacalle" and a Huayno
   fugue, three traditional Inca rhythms.

   Jorge Bravo de Rueda's famous "Vírgenes del Sol" was popularized in
   1951 by Yma Súmac.

   Arequipa is region that probably that resembles best the mixing of the
   Spanish and the Andean cultures. Arequipa city is the proud creator of
   the famous Yaraví, a melancholy style that involves Spanish or creole
   guitar that is sung A Capella. It has been popularized to the rest of
   the Andean communities after the Pacific War in honour of Mariano
   Melgar (local hero). The music evokes to the solitude of the mountains,
   the miners and the Andean farmer. It is a mix of gypsy Zards and
   Huayno.

   The Huaylas of the central Andes, by contrast, is a cheery, rhythmic
   style mostly popular around Cerro de Pasco, Huanuco Huaraz.

Coastal Peruvian music

   Aerial view of Costa Verde, Miraflores
   Enlarge
   Aerial view of Costa Verde, Miraflores

   The coast has a different feel to its music than its Andean
   counterpart. It is called musica criolla and its rooted in a fusion
   that evokes to traditional Spanish, Gypsy (Roma People) and African
   influence.

   It combines traditional European rhythms, strong gypsy emotional flair
   deriving from Flamenco and eastern European Zards, and also African
   based chorus and percussion.

   This mixture is rooted especially in the central and northern coast,
   and has provided the wide range of dance and musical styles we hear
   today. Lima for example, is most well known musical style Peruvian
   Waltz known elsewhere as valse peruano and valsesito peruano. The
   rhythm involves a singer, a chorus, creole Guitarr, Peruvian Cajón and
   spoon players. It is widely popularised by the great Chabuca Granda,
   who is considered the most important composer of coastal creole music,
   with such songs as La Flor de La Canela, Fina Estampa, and José
   Antonio. Other commonly known Peruvian valse tunes are Alma Corazon y
   Vida, Odiame, Propiedad Privada, El Plebeyo, and El Rosario de Mi
   Madre, some of these songs are twisted to Bolero or Salsa version by
   Caribbean artists.

   Afro Peruvian music is commonly performed by duos of creole guitars,
   the Cajon, Cajita and the peculiar Quijada de Burro.

   Examples of these dances are the Festejo and Landó, which are common to
   Afro-Peruvian communities of the southern coast. Susana Baca is a
   renowned singer and composer of Afro Peruvian music. She won a Grammy
   award in 2002 for her album Lamento Negro.

   The Marinera or Zamacueca of the central coast Lima is the current
   National Dance of Peru, named in honour of the marines who fought
   against the Chilean military in the War of the Pacific. Among Peruvians
   of the coast, it is considered as traditional and representative as the
   Tango is to Argentina. The dance evokes from a mixture of Eastern
   European gypsy, flamenco and the elegance of the Peruvian Paso Horse.
   Many people take classes and look forward to the annual Marinera
   Festival held in the city of Trujillo every July, with thousands in
   attendance.

   In the northern coast especially Lambayeque and Piura, the people are
   most famous for the Cumananas and the Tondero dance. These are the
   oldest and most mestizo expressions of Peruvian music and derive from
   the encountered mixture of the Gypsies, Africans slaves and migrant
   Andean cultures.

   Peruvian coastal music has in its rich structure the participation of a
   local instrument called the cajón. This instrument has been mistaken
   very frequently with an Spanish origin (the cajon was introduced in
   Spain around the 1980's by Paco de Lucia, but the truth is that the
   cajon has been utilized in Peruvian music since the colonial times.
   Although it might also have gypsy influence it has been proved that the
   instrument is strictly of Peruvian origin since it is rooted in the
   Tondero, the Zamacueca, the Resabalosa and Peruvian coastal creole
   rhythms before any other expressions.

Dances

   Marinera Norteña, the most representative dance in the coast of Peru.
   Enlarge
   Marinera Norteña, the most representative dance in the coast of Peru.

   Between Dances of Native origin, there are the ones that are related to
   the agricultural work, hunting and war. Some choreographies show
   certain Christian influence. Two of the most representative Andean
   dances are the kashua and the wayno or huayno. The kashua has a
   communal character and it is usually danced in groups in the country or
   open spaces. The huayno is a "salon ball". It is danced in couples and
   in closed spaces. The yaravi and the triste have also an Andean origin.
   They are usually songs with very emotional lyrics.

   Dances of Ritual character are the achocallo, the pinkillada, the
   llamerada (dance that imitates the llama's walk), the kullawada (the
   spinners' dance), etc. Between the Hunting dances, it can be mentioned:
   the llipi-puli and choq'elas. They are dances from the altiplano
   related to the vicuña's hunting.

   There are some Dances of War like the chiriguano that has an Aymara
   origin; the chatripuli that satirizes the Spanish Realist soldiers, and
   the kenakenas that is about the Chilean soldiers who occupied Peru
   during the War of the Pacific ( 1879). There are also Carnival Dances.
   A Carnival is a western holiday that, in the Peruvian Andes, is
   celebrated simultaneously with the crops time. Many rural communities
   celebrate the youths' initiation during these holidays with ancestral
   rites and crossbred dances. New couples might be established.

   The most attractive and internationally known Love Dance in Peru is the
   Marinera Norteña. This dance represents a man's courting to a young
   woman. There are local variants of this dance in Lima and the other
   regions of the country.

Popular celebrations

   Popular celebrations are the product of every town's traditions and
   legends. These celebrations gather music, dances, meals and typical
   drinks. In addition to the religious celebrations like Christmas,
   Corpus Christi or Holy Week, there are others that express the
   syncretism of the indigenous peoples' beliefs with the Christians'. An
   example of this kind of celebration is the Alasitas (an Aymara word
   that, according to some studious people, would mean «buy me») that
   combines a crafts and miniatures fair with dances, meals and a mass.
   Another example is the peregrination of the Q'oyllor-riti ( Cuzco),
   that gathers the ancient cult to the apus (tutelary divinities of the
   mountains) with a peregrination to a Christian Sanctuary in a long trek
   to the top of a mountain, of more than 5000 m. at sea level, that is
   covered with snow.

Transportation

   Peru has a network of national highways maintained by the Ministerio de
   Transportes y Comunicaciones (Ministry of Transportation and
   Communication) government agency. The Pan-American Highway is the most
   important highway in Peru, connecting the northern and southern
   portions of the country as well as connecting Peru with Ecuador to the
   north and Chile to the south.

Cuisine

   There is great variety in Peruvian cuisine. Common plants include
   maize, tomatoes, the great bananaman, potatoes, rocoto (also called ají
   or uchu), oca, ulluco, avocado (palta), chirimoya, lúcuma, and
   pineapple (anana). Meat comes from animals such as the huemul (similar
   to the little red brocket), llama, and Guinea pig (cuy). As American,
   European and Moorish culinary traditions combined, new meals and ways
   of preparing them arose. The arrival of Africans and Chinese also
   influenced the development of Creole cuisine.

   Peruvian cuisine is becoming more popular on the world gastronomic
   scene. It is a blend of Amerindian and Spanish food with influence from
   other groups, including Africans, Italians, Chinese and Japanese, all
   of whom have added their own ingredients and traditions to the mix.

   Peru's many climate zones also make it possible to grow a wide range of
   crops. There are the dozens of native potato, maize and chile pepper
   varieties from the Andes, with rocoto being one of the most popular.
   Fish and seafood from the Pacific coast, mangoes and limes from the
   coastal valleys, and bananas and manioc from the Amazon jungle add
   distinctive touches to the national cuisine.

   Some examples of typical Peruvian dishes are the the shrimp stew chupe
   de camarones, and the anticuchos (beef heart roasted in brochettes).
   Olluco con charqui is a casserole made of ulluco and charqui, the
   Andean pachamanca is comprised of meats, tubers and broadbeans cooked
   in a stone oven, and the lomo saltado is a dish of fried meat,
   tomatoes, and onion which is reminiscent of Chinese cuisine but is
   served with fried potatoes. The picante de cuy is a casserole of fried
   guinea pig.

   The best known and most popular Peruvian dish is ceviche, which is fish
   and shellfish marinated in lime juice. The most popular ceviche is a
   type of seafood cocktail where the fish has been marinated in lime with
   onions and hot peppers, but not cooked. The lime's acid denatures the
   protein and turns the fish white, "cooking" it. There are several types
   of ceviche that include fish only, mussels, or mixed seafood. Other
   typical food include staples from the Andes; humitas ( tamales),
   roasted guinea pig, papa a la Huancaina, Jalea de Mar, chilcano,
   sudado, aguadito, tallarin saltado, aji de gallina, arroz con pollo
   (chicken and rice), Seco de Res, chicharrones, tacu tacu, carapulcra
   (dry potato), choncholi, salchipapas, Mondonguito a la Italiana,
   chanfainita, ocopa, different Chifa dishes (Chinese food made with
   Peruvian ingredients), estofado, Bistec a la Pobre, arroz con pato,
   rocoto relleno, empanadas, pollo a la brasa, lechon, Picante de
   Mariscos, and Turron de Doña Pepa.

   Caramel, also known as Manjar Blanco in Peru, is a very popular
   dessert. Also Crema Chantilly in very popular in cakes. Other desserts
   include Mazamorra Morada, arroz con leche, flan, picarones, Crema
   Volteada, leche asada, and torta helada.

   Peruvian food can be accompanied by typical drinks like the chicha de
   jora, made with sun-dried corn. There are also chichas made of purple
   corn and peanuts. The most popular soft drink is called Inca Kola,
   which is a yellowish cream soda, but other sodas are popular too, such
   as Kola Inglesa, Guarana Backus, and other very common fruit sodas like
   orange, pineapple, and lemon. Peru's most well known beverage is the
   Pisco which originated in the Peruvian department of Ica.

   Peru travel guide from Wikitravel

Sports

   Football: The most popular Peruvian sport is football (soccer) World
   Cup appearances: 1930, 1970 (quarterfinalists), 1978
   (quarterfinalists), 1982 and two Copa America trophies). Most of the
   population of Peru follow the World Cup tournament on television.
   Soccer legends from Peru include Hugo Sotil, Cesar Cueto, Roberto
   Challe, Jose Chumpitaz, Percy Rojas, Juan Carlos Oblitas and Teofilo
   Cubillas: Peru's best striker in the World Cup Finals with 10 goals.

   Current renowned players include midfielder Nolberto Solano ( Newcastle
   United), and strikers Claudio Pizarro ( FC Bayern Munich), Jose Paolo
   Guerrero ( SV Hamburg) and Jefferson Farfán ( PSV Eindhoven).
   Universitario de Deportes, Alianza Lima, Sporting Cristal, and
   Cienciano are the biggest teams in Peru. In 2003, Cienciano won the
   Copa Sudamericana by beating argentinian club River Plate, and then
   proceeded to beat Latin American powerhouse Boca Juniors from Argentina
   too in the SuperCup played in Miami.

   Taekwondo: Jean Carlos Gamarra, Silver Medal, 13th South American
   Games, Arequipa - Peru 1997. Bronze Medal, 11th Pan American Taekwondo
   Championships, Lima - Peru 1998. 19th in World Male Fin Weight Ranking,
   2001. Gold Medal, American Open, U.S.A. 2002. Member of the World
   Taekwondo Federation Hall of Fame, Seoul - S.Korea.
   Jean Carlos Gamarra (right) is declared winner.
   Enlarge
   Jean Carlos Gamarra (right) is declared winner.

   Volleyball: Other popular sport is Women’s Volleyball (Silver medal in
   Seoul 1988 Olympic Games, Runners-up in World Championship in 1982 and
   12 times South American champion).

   Surfing: Felipe Pomar, 2nd World Surfing Championship, Peru 1965, Sofia
   Mulanovich, Women’s World Surf Champion in 2004 and 2005.

   Sailing: Peru is the only country of the region that has won for six
   consecutive years the world Cup in the Sunfish Class. In addition, Peru
   has won the Central American, South American & Caribbean Championships
   for the same category. In the Optimist Class, it was three times World
   Champion in Team-Racing in 1997, 1998, and 1999.

   Shooting: Peruvian shooters have won 3 of Peru's 4 Olympic medals.
   Edwin Vásquez won Peru's only gold medal in London 1948 Olympic Games,
   while Francisco Boza (Los Angeles 1984), and Juan Giha (Barcelona 1992)
   both won silver medals.

   Tennis: Luis Horna and Jaime Yzaga are the most famous Peruvian tennis
   players. Tennis Hall of Famer and Davis Cup and Wimbledon winner
   Alejandro Olmedo was born in Peru but he played for the United States.

Paleta Fronton

   Two men playing Paleta Fronton in Lima, Peru
   Enlarge
   Two men playing Paleta Fronton in Lima, Peru

   Paleta Fronton is a Peruvian sport born in Lima officially in 1945 in
   "Regatas Lima" Club. This sport has its roots in the "Pelota Vasca"
   brought by the spanish Conquerors and the domestic "Pelota Mano"
   wrongly called at that time "Handball" because of the english
   influence.

   Paleta Fronton is played with a wood, graphite or carbon blade and a
   black rubber ball. The court consists of a concrete wall of 5 meters in
   height and 6 meters in width with lines on the floor limiting the court
   and marking the reception zones like in Tennis.

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