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Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: General history

   CAPTION: Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów
   Abiejų tautų respublika
   Commonwealth of Both Nations

   State union

   ← Coat of arms
                   1569 —  1795 →
                                →
                                →

   Coat of arms of Poland

   Coat of arms
   Motto: Si Deus Nobiscum quis contra nos
   (Latin: If God is with us, then who is against us)
   Pro Fide, Lege et Rege
   (Latin: For Faith, Law and King - since 18th century)
   Location of Poland
   The Commonwealth around 1619
   Capital Kraków until 1596, Warsaw (shared with Grodno from 1673)
   Language(s) Latin¹, Polish², Lithuanian and Ruthenian
   Religion Roman Catholic
   Government Monarchy
   King of Poland List
   Grand Duke of Lithuania List
   Legislature Sejm
   History
    -  Union established July 1,  1569
    -  1st partition August 5, 1772
    - Constitution May 3, 1791
    -  2nd partition January 23, 1793
    -  3rd partition October 24, 1795
   Area
    - 1582 815,000 km^2
   314,673 sq mi
    - 1618 990,000 km^2
   382,241 sq mi
   Population
    - 1582 est. 6,500,000
        Density 8 /km²
   20.7 /sq mi
    - 1618 est. 10,500,000
        Density 10.6 /km²
   27.5 /sq mi
   ¹ Latin
   ² Polish

   The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, also known as the "Republic of the
   Two Nations" or "Commonwealth of the Two Nations" ( Polish:
   Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów; Belarusian: Рэч Паспалітая Абодвух
   Народаў; Lithuanian: Abiejų tautų respublika) or as the "First
   Republic," was one of the largest and most populous countries in
   17th-century Europe. Its political structure — that of a semi-federal,
   semi-confederal aristocratic republic — was formed in 1569 by the Union
   of Lublin, which united the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of
   Lithuania, and lasted in this form until the adoption of the
   Constitution of May 3, 1791. The Commonwealth covered not only the
   territories of what is now Poland and Lithuania, but also the entire
   territory of Belarus and Latvia, large parts of Ukraine and Estonia,
   and part of present-day western Russia ( Smolensk oblast). Originally
   the official languages of the Commonwealth were Polish and Latin (in
   the Kingdom of Poland) and Ruthenian and Lithuanian (in the Grand Duchy
   of Lithuania).

                       Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth:

   at its greatest extent (ca. 1630);

   following territorial losses in the Deluge ( 1648).

   The Commonwealth was an extension of the Polish-Lithuanian Union, a
   personal union between those two states that had existed from 1386 (see
   Union of Krewo). The Commonwealth's political system, often called the
   Noble's democracy or Golden Freedom, was characterized by the
   sovereign's power being reduced by laws and the legislature ( Sejm)
   controlled by the nobility ( szlachta). This system was a precursor of
   the modern concepts of broader democracy. and constitutional monarchy
   as well as federation The two comprising states of the Commonwealth's
   were formally equal, although in reality Poland was a dominant partner
   in the union. The Commonwealth was also notable for the world's
   second-oldest codified national constitution in modern history; and,
   despite the massive influence of the Roman Catholic Church in the
   Commonwealth affairs, for the state's relative religious tolerance,
   although the degree to which that varied with time Its economy was
   mainly based on agriculture. While the Commonwealth's first decades
   were a golden age for both Poland and Lithuania, the second century was
   marked by military defeats, a return to serfdom for the peasants (the
   second serfdom phenomena), and growing anarchy in political life.

   The Duchy of Warsaw, established in 1807, traced its origins to the
   Commonwealth. Other revival movements appeared during the January
   Uprising ( 1863– 1864) and in the 1920s, with Józef Piłsudski's failed
   attempt to create a Polish-led " Międzymorze" ("Between-Seas")
   federation that would have included Lithuania and Ukraine. Today's
   Republic of Poland considers itself a successor to the Commonwealth,
   whereas the pre-World War II Republic of Lithuania distanced itself
   from an association which it considered not to have been historically
   beneficial to Lithuania.

History

   The White Eagle, symbol of Polish statehood
   Polish Statehood
     * Kingdom of the first Piasts
     * Fragmentation
     * Kingdom of the later Piasts
     * Kingdom of the Jagiellons
     * Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
     * Partitions
          + Kingdom of Galicia
          + Duchy of Warsaw
          + Congress Kingdom
          + Free City of Kraków
          + Grand Duchy of Poznań
          + Regency Kingdom
     * Second Polish Republic
     * Polish Secret State
     * People's Republic of Poland
     * Third Polish Republic

   The creation of the Commonwealth by the Union of Lublin in 1569 was one
   of the signal achievements of Sigismund II Augustus, last king of the
   Jagiellon dynasty. His death in 1572 was followed by a three-year
   interregnum during which adjustments were made to the constitutional
   system that effectively increased the power of the nobility (the
   szlachta) and established a truly elective monarchy.

   The Commonwealth reached its Golden Age in the first half of the 17th
   century. Its powerful parliament (the Sejm) was dominated by nobles who
   were reluctant to get involved in the Thirty Years' War, sparing the
   country from the ravages of this largely religious conflict devastating
   most of contemporary Europe. The Commonwealth was able to hold its own
   against Sweden, Russia, and vassals of the Ottoman Empire, and at times
   launched successful expansionist offensives against its neighbors.
   During several invasions of Russia, which was weakened in early-17th
   century by the Time of Troubles, Commonwealth troops managed to take
   Moscow and hold on to it from 27 September 1610 to 4 November 1612,
   until driven out by the Russian patriotic rising of the nation.

   Commonwealth power waned after a double blow in 1648. The first blow
   was history's greatest Cossack rebellion (the Khmelnytskyi Uprising,
   supported by Crimean Khanate Tatars, in the eastern territories of
   Kresy), which resulted in Cossacks asking for the protection of the
   Russian Tzar (1654) thus leading to Russian influence over Ukraine
   gradually supplanting the Polish. The other blow to the Commonwealth
   was the Swedish invasion in 1655 (supported by troops of Transylvanian
   duke George II Rakoczy and Friedrich Wilhelm I, Elector of
   Brandenburg), known as The Deluge, provoked by the policies of
   Commonwealth kings from the Swedish royal House of Vasa.

   In the late 17th century, the weakened Commonwealth under King John III
   Sobieski in alliance with the forces of Holy Roman emperor Leopold I
   dealt the crushing defeats to the Ottoman Empire: in 1683, the Battle
   of Vienna marked the final turning point in a 250-year struggle between
   the forces of Christian Europe and the Islamic Ottoman Empire. For its
   centuries long stance against the Muslim advances, the Commonwealth
   would gain the name of "Antemurale Christianitatis" (forefront of
   Christianity). Over the next 16 years (in the " Great Turkish War") the
   Turks would be permanently driven south of the Danube River, never to
   threaten central Europe again.

   By the 18th century, the Commonwealth was facing many internal problems
   and was vulnerable to foreign influences. The destabilization of the
   political system brought it to the brink of anarchy. Attempts at
   reform, such as those made by the Four-Year Sejm of 1788– 1792, which
   culminated in the May 3rd Constitution of 1791, came too late, and the
   country was partitioned in three stages by the neighboring Russian
   Empire, Kingdom of Prussia, and the Habsburg Monarchy. By 1795 the
   Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had been completely erased from the map
   of Europe. Poland and Lithuania re-established their independence, as
   separate countries, only in 1918.

State organization and politics

          See also: Offices in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

Golden Liberty

   Union of Lublin of 1569, by Jan Matejko, 1869, oil on canvas, 298 × 512
   cm., National Museum, Warsaw.
   Enlarge
   Union of Lublin of 1569, by Jan Matejko, 1869, oil on canvas, 298 × 512
   cm., National Museum, Warsaw.

   The political doctrine of the Commonwealth of Both Nations was: our
   state is a republic under the presidency of the King. Chancellor Jan
   Zamoyski summed up this doctrine when he said that "Rex regnat et non
   gubernat" ("The King reigns but does not govern"). The Commonwealth had
   a parliament, the Sejm, as well as a Senat and an elected king. The
   king was obliged to respect citizens' rights specified in King Henry's
   Articles as well as in pacta conventa negotiated at the time of his
   election.

   The monarch's power was limited, in favour of a sizable noble class.
   Each new king had to subscribe to King Henry's Articles, which were the
   basis of Poland's political system (and included near-unprecedented
   guarantees of religious tolerance). Over time, King Henry's Articles
   were merged with the pacta conventa, specific pledges agreed to by the
   king-elect. From that point, the king was effectively a partner with
   the noble class and was constantly supervised by a group of senators.

   The foundation of the Commonwealth's political system, the " Golden
   Liberty" (Polish Zlota Wolność, a term used from 1573), included:
     * free election of the king by all nobles wishing to participate;
     * Sejm, the Commonwealth parliament which the king was required to
       hold every two years;
     * pacta conventa (Latin), "agreed-to agreements" negotiated with the
       king-elect, including a bill of rights, binding on the king,
       derived from the earlier King Henry's Articles;
     * rokosz ( insurrection), the right of szlachta to form a legal
       rebellion against a king who violated their guaranteed freedoms;
     * liberum veto (Latin), the right of an individual Sejm deputy to
       oppose a decision by the majority in a Sejm session; the voicing of
       such a "free veto" nullified all the legislation that had been
       passed at that session; during the crisis of the second half of the
       17th century, Polish nobles could also use the liberum veto in
       provincial sejmiks;
     * konfederacja (from the Latin confederatio), the right to form an
       organization to force through a common political aim.

   The provinces of the Commonwealth enjoyed a degree of autonomy. Each
   voivodship had its own parliament (sejmik), which exercised serious
   political power, including choice of poseł ( deputy) to the national
   Sejm and charging of the deputy with specific voting instructions. The
   Grand Duchy of Lithuania had its own army, treasury and other
   institutions.

   Golden Liberty created a state that was unusual for its time, although
   somewhat similar political systems existed in the contemporary
   city-states like the Republic of Venice.(interestingly both states were
   styled the " Most Serene Republic.") At a time when most European
   countries were headed toward centralization, absolute monarchy and
   religious and dynastic warfare, the Commonwealth experimented with
   decentralization, confederation and federation, democracy, religious
   tolerance and even pacifism. Since the Sejm usually vetoed a monarch's
   plans for war, this constitutes a notable argument for the democratic
   peace theory

   This unusual for its time political system stemmed from the victories
   of the szlachta ( noble class over other social classes and over the
   political system of monarchy. In time, the szlachta accumulated enough
   privileges (such as those established by the Nihil novi Act of 1505)
   that no monarch could hope to break the szlachta's grip on power. The
   Commonwealth's political system is difficult to fit into a simple
   category, but it can be tentatively described as a mixture of:
     * confederation and federation, with regard to the broad autonomy of
       its regions;
     * oligarchy, as only the szlachta—around 10% of the population—had
       political rights;
     * democracy, since all the szlachta were equal in rights and
       privileges, and the Sejm could veto the king on important matters,
       including legislation (the adoption of new laws), foreign affairs,
       declaration of war, and taxation (changes of existing taxes or the
       levying of new ones). Also, the 10% of Commonwealth population who
       enjoyed those political rights (the szlachta) was a substantially
       larger percentage than in any other European country; note that in
       1831 in France only about 1% of the population had the right to
       vote, and in 1867 in the United Kingdom, only about 3%;
     * elective monarchy, since the monarch, elected by the szlachta, was
       Head of State;
     * constitutional monarchy, since the monarch was bound by pacta
       conventa and other laws, and szlachta could disobey any king's
       decrees they deemed illegal.

The political players

   Kanclerzand GrandHetman Jan Zamoyski herbu Jelita, in crimson delia and
   blue silk żupan. Holds hetman's baton (buława hetmańska)
   Enlarge
   Kanclerzand Grand Hetman Jan Zamoyski herbu Jelita, in crimson delia
   and blue silk żupan. Holds hetman's baton ( buława hetmańska)

   The major players in the politics of the Commonwealth were:
     * monarchs, who struggled to expand their power and create an
       absolute monarchy.
     * magnates, the wealthiest of the szlachta, who wanted to rule the
       country as a privileged oligarchy, and to dominate both the monarch
       and the poorer nobles.
     * szlachta, who desired a strengthening of the Sejm and rule of the
       country as a democracy of the szlachta.

   The magnates and the szlachta were far from united, with many factions
   supporting either the monarch or various of the magnates.

Shortcomings of the Commonwealth

   "Rejtan - The Fall of Poland", oil on canvas by Jan Matejko, 1866, 282
   x 487 cm, Royal Castle in Warsaw. Tadeusz Rejtan (lower right) in
   September 1773 tried to prevent the legalization of the first partition
   of Poland by preventing the members of Sejm from entering the chamber.
   Enlarge
   " Rejtan - The Fall of Poland", oil on canvas by Jan Matejko, 1866, 282
   x 487 cm, Royal Castle in Warsaw. Tadeusz Rejtan (lower right) in
   September 1773 tried to prevent the legalization of the first partition
   of Poland by preventing the members of Sejm from entering the chamber.

   Once the Jagiellons had disappeared from the scene in 1572, the fragile
   equilibrium of the Commonwealth's government began to shake. Power
   increasingly slipped away from the central government to the nobility.

   In their periodic opportunities to fill the throne, the szlachta
   exhibited a preference for foreign candidates who would not found
   another strong dynasty. This policy often produced monarchs who were
   either totally ineffective or in constant debilitating conflict with
   the nobility. Furthermore, aside from notable exceptions such as the
   able Transylvanian Stefan Batory ( 1576– 1586), the kings of foreign
   origin were inclined to subordinate the interests of the Commonwealth
   to those of their own country and ruling house. This was especially
   visible in the policies and actions of the first two elected kings from
   the Swedish House of Vasa, whose politics brought the Commonwealth into
   conflict with Sweden, culminating in the war known as The Deluge (
   1648), one of the events that mark the end of the Commonwealth's Golden
   Age and the beginning of the Commonwealth's decline.

   Zebrzydowski's rokosz ( 1606– 7) marked a substantial increase in the
   power of the magnates, and the transformation of szlachta democracy
   into magnate oligarchy. The Commonwealth's political system was
   vulnerable to outside interference, as Sejm deputies bribed by foreign
   powers might use their liberum veto to block attempted reforms. This
   sapped the Commonwealth and plunged it into political paralysis and
   anarchy for over a century, from the mid-17th century to the end of the
   18th, while her neighbors stabilized their internal affairs and
   increased their military might.

Late reforms

   May 3rd Constitution, by Jan Matejko, 1891, oil on canvas, 227 × 446
   cm.. Royal Castle, Warsaw.
   Enlarge
   May 3rd Constitution, by Jan Matejko, 1891, oil on canvas, 227 × 446
   cm.. Royal Castle, Warsaw.

   Eventually the Commonwealth did make a serious effort to reform its
   political system, adopting in 1791 the May 3rd Constitution, Europe's
   first codified national constitution in the Modern Times, and the
   world's second, after the United States Constitution that came into
   being about two years earlier. The revolutionary Constitution recast
   the erstwhile Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as a Polish–Lithuanian
   federal state with a hereditary monarchy and abolished many of the
   deleterious features of the old system. The new constitution:
     * abolished the liberum veto and baned the szlachta's confederations;
     * provided for a separation of powers among legislative, executive
       and judicial branches of government;
     * established " popular sovereignty" and extended political rights to
       include not only the nobility but the bourgeoisie;
     * increased the rights of the peasantry;
     * preserved religious tolerance (but with a condemnation of apostasy
       from the Catholic faith).

   These reforms came too late, however, as the Commonwealth was
   immediately invaded from all sides by its neighbors who content to
   leave the weak Commonwealth alone as a buffer, reacted strongly to the
   king Stanisław August Poniatowski's and other reformers attempts to
   strengthen the country. Russia feared the revolutionary implications of
   the May 3rd Constitution's political reforms and the prospect of the
   Commonwealth regaining its position as a European empire. Catherine the
   Great regarded the May constitution as fatal to her influence declared
   Polish constitution Jacobinical. and Grigori Aleksandrovich Potemkin
   drafted the act for the Confederation of Targowica, referring to the
   constitution as the 'contaigon of democratic ideas'. Meanwhile Prussia
   and Austria, also afraid of the strengthened Poland, used it as a
   pretext for further territorial expansion. Prussian minister Ewald von
   Hertzberg called the constitution "a blow to the Prussian monarchy",
   fearing that strengthened Poland would once again dominate Prussia In
   the end the May 3rd Constitution was never fully implemented, and the
   Commonwealth entirely ceased to exist only four years after the
   Constitution's adoption.

Commonwealth military

   Commonwealth hussars, by Józef Brandt.
   Enlarge
   Commonwealth hussars, by Józef Brandt.

   Commonwealth armies were commanded by two Grand Hetmans and two Field
   Hetmans The armies comprised:
     * Wojsko kwarciane: Regular units with wages paid from taxes (these
       units were later merged with the wojsko komputowe)
     * Wojsko komputowe: Semi-regular units created for times of war (in
       1652 these units were merged with the wojsko kwarciane into a new
       permanent army)
     * Pospolite ruszenie: Szlachta levée en masse
     * Piechota łanowa and piechota wybraniecka: Units based on peasant
       recruits
     * Registered Cossacks: Troops made up of Cossacks, used mainly as
       infantry, less often as cavalry (with tabors) were recruited.
     * Royal guard: A small unit whose primary purpose was to escort the
       monarch and members of his family
     * Mercenaries: As with most other armies, hired to supplement regular
       units, such as Germans, Scotts, Wallachians, Serbs, Hungarians,
       Czechs and Moravians.
     * Private armies: In time of peace usually small regiments (few
       hundred men) were paid for and equipped by magnates or cities.
       However, in times of war, they were greatly augmented (to even a
       few thousand men) and paid by state

   Some units of the Commonwealth included:
     * Hussars: heavy cavalry armed with lances; their charges were
       extremely effective until advances in firearms in the late 17th
       century substantially increased infantry firepower. Members were
       known as towarzysz husarski and were supported by pocztowy's.
     * Pancerni: medium cavalry, armed with sabers or axes, bows, later
       pistols. Second important cavalry branch of the Polish army.
     * Pocztowi: assistants of pancerni.
     * Cossack cavalry (or just Cossacks): general name for all
       Commonwealth units of light cavalry, even if they did not contain a
       single ethnic Cossack; fast and maneuverable like oriental cavalry
       units of Ottoman Empire vassals, but lacking the firepower of
       European cavalry such as the Swedish pistol-armed reiters.
     * Tabor: military horse-drawn wagons, usually carrying army supplies.
       Their use for defensive formations was perfected by the Cossacks,
       and to a smaller extent by other Commonwealth units.

   The Commonwealth Navy was small and played a relatively minor role in
   the history of the Commonwealth.

Economy

   Grain pays...
   Enlarge
   Grain pays...
   ...and grain doesn't pay. The two pictures illustrate the notion that
   agriculture, once expremely profitablt to the nobles (szlachta) in the
   Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, became much less profitable from the
   second half of 17th century onwards
   Enlarge
   ...and grain doesn't pay. The two pictures illustrate the notion that
   agriculture, once expremely profitablt to the nobles (szlachta) in the
   Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, became much less profitable from the
   second half of 17th century onwards

   The economy of the Commonwealth was dominated by feudal agriculture
   based on exploitation of agricultural workforce ( serfs). Typically a
   nobleman's landholding comprised a folwark, a large farm worked by
   serfs to produce surpluses for internal and external trade. This
   economic arrangement worked well for the ruling classes in the early
   era of the Commonwealth, which was one of the most prosperous eras of
   the grain trade . However the country's situation worsened from the
   late 17th century on, when the landed szlachta sought to compensate for
   falling grain prices by increasing the peasants' workload, thus leading
   to the creation of second serfdom, a phenomena common throughout
   contemporary Eastern Europe.

   The Commonwealth's preoccupation with agriculture, coupled with the
   szlachta's dominance over the bourgeoisie, resulted in a fairly slow
   process of urbanization and thus a fairly slow development of
   industries. While similar conflicts among social classes may be found
   all over Europe, nowhere were the nobility as dominant at the time as
   in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. There is, however, much debate
   among historians as to which processes most affected those
   developments, since until the wars and crises of the mid-17th century
   the cities of the Commonwealth had not markedly lagged in size and
   wealth behind their western counterparts. The Commonwealth did have
   numerous towns and cities, commonly founded on Magdeburg rights. Some
   of the largest trade fairs in the Commonwealth were held at Lublin. See
   the geography section, below, for a list of major cities in the
   Commonwealth (commonly capitals of voivodships).

   Although the Commonwealth was Europe's largest grain producer, the bulk
   of her grain was consumed domestically. Estimated grain consumption in
   the Polish Crown (Poland proper) and Prussia in 1560– 70 was some
   113,000 tons of wheat (or 226,000 łaszt (a łaszt, or " last," being a
   large bulk measure; in the case of grain, about half a ton). Average
   yearly production of grain in the Commonwealth in the 16th century was
   120,000 tons, 6% of which was exported, while cities consumed some 19%
   and the remainder was consumed by the villages. The exports probably
   satisfied about 2% of the demand for grain in Western Europe, feeding
   750,000 people there. Commonwealth grain achieved far more importance
   in poor crop years, as in the early 1590s and the 1620s, when
   governments throughout southern Europe arranged for large grain imports
   to cover shortfalls in their jurisdictions.
   "Rivermen's camp at the Wisła (Vistula)," 1858, by Wilhelm August
   Stryowski (1834–1917), 110×138 cm.
   Enlarge
   "Rivermen's camp at the Wisła ( Vistula)," 1858, by Wilhelm August
   Stryowski ( 1834– 1917), 110×138 cm.

   Still, grain was the largest export commodity of the Commonwealth. The
   owner of a folwark usually signed a contract with merchants of Gdansk
   (German Danzig), who controlled 80% of this inland trade, to ship the
   grain north to that seaport on the Baltic Sea. Many rivers in the
   Commonwealth were used for shipping purposes: the Vistula, Pilica,
   Western Bug, San, Nida, Wieprz, Niemen. The rivers had relatively
   developed infrastructure, with river ports and granaries. Most of the
   river shipping moved north, southward transport being less profitable,
   and barges and rafts were often sold off in Gdańsk for lumber.

   From Gdańsk, ships, mostly from the Netherlands and Flanders, carried
   the grain to ports such as Antwerp and Amsterdam. Gdańsk ships
   accounted for only 2–10% of this maritime trade. Besides grain, other
   seaborne exports included lumber and wood-related products such as tar
   and ash.

   By land routes, the Commonwealth exported hides, furs, hemp, cotton
   (mostly from Wielkopolska) and linen to the German lands of the Holy
   Roman Empire, including cities like Leipzig and Nuremberg. Large herds
   (of around 50,000 head) of cattle were driven south through Silesia.

   The Commonwealth imported spices, luxury goods, clothing, fish, beer
   and industrial products like steel and tools. A few riverboats carried
   south imports from Gdańsk like wine, fruit, spices and herring.
   Somewhere between the 16th and 17th centuries, the Commonwealth's trade
   balance shifted from positive to negative.
   Commonwealth coin minted during the reign of King Stefan Batory
   Commonwealth coin minted during the reign of King Stefan Batory
   Royal City of Danzig coin of 1589 (Sigismund III Vasa period)
   Enlarge
   Royal City of Danzig coin of 1589 ( Sigismund III Vasa period)

   With the advent of the Age of Exploration, many old trading routes such
   as the Amber Road lost importance as new ones were created. Poland's
   importance as a caravan route between Asia and Europe diminished, while
   new local trading routes were created between the Commonwealth and
   Russia. But even with improvements in shipping technology the
   Commonwealth remained an important link between Occident and Orient, as
   many goods and cultural artifacts passed from one region to another via
   the Commonwealth. For example, Persian carpets imported across the
   Commonwealth were actually known in the West as "Polish carpets". Also,
   the price of eastern spices in Poland was several times lower than in
   western ports, which led to the creation of a distinct Polish cuisine,
   owing much both to the eastern and western influence.

   Commonwealth currency included the złoty and the grosz. The City of
   Gdańsk had the privilege of minting its own coinage.

Culture

   Multi-stage rocket, from Kazimierz Siemienowicz's Artis Magnæ
   Artilleriæ pars prima
   Enlarge
   Multi-stage rocket, from Kazimierz Siemienowicz's Artis Magnæ
   Artilleriæ pars prima
   Branicki Palace, Białystok, built 1726
   Enlarge
   Branicki Palace, Białystok, built 1726
   "The Alchemist Michał Sędziwój", oil on board by Jan Matejko, 73×130
   cm, Museum of Arts (Łódź)
   Enlarge
   "The Alchemist Michał Sędziwój", oil on board by Jan Matejko, 73×130
   cm, Museum of Arts ( Łódź)
   Presidential Palace (Warsaw), built 1643–1645 and frequently remodeled.
   Foreground: equestrian statue of Prince Jozef Poniatowski by Bertel
   Thorvaldsen  It should be possible to replace this fair use image with
   a freely licensed one. If you can, please do so as soon as is
   practical.
   Enlarge
   Presidential Palace (Warsaw), built 1643– 1645 and frequently
   remodeled. Foreground: equestrian statue of Prince Jozef Poniatowski by
   Bertel Thorvaldsen  It should be possible to replace this fair use
   image with a freely licensed one. If you can, please do so as soon as
   is practical.
   Church and Monastery of Pažaislis
   Enlarge
   Church and Monastery of Pažaislis

   The Commonwealth was an important European centre for the development
   of modern social and political ideas. It was famous for its rare
   quasi-democratic political system, praised by philosophers such as
   Erasmus; and, during the Counter-Reformation, was known for
   near-unparallelled religious tolerance, with peacefully coexisting
   Catholic, Jewish, Eastern Orthodox, Protestant and even Muslim
   communities. The Commonwealth gave rise to the famous Christian sect of
   the Polish Brethren, antecedents of British and American Unitarianism.

   With its political system, the Commonwealth gave birth to political
   philosophers such as Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski (1503–1572), Wawrzyniec
   Grzymała Goślicki (1530–1607) and Piotr Skarga (1536–1612). Later,
   works by Stanisław Staszic (1755–1826) and Hugo Kołłątaj (1750–1812)
   helped pave the way for the Constitution of May 3, 1791, the first
   modern codified national constitution in Europe, which enacted
   revolutionary political principles for the first time on that
   continent.

   Kraków's Jagiellonian University is one of the oldest universities in
   the world. Vilnius University and the Jagiellonian University were the
   major scholarly and scientific centers in the Commonwealth. The
   Commission for National Education ( Polish: Komisja Edukacji
   Narodowej), formed in 1773, was the world's first national ministry of
   education. Commonwealth scientists included:
     * Martin Kromer (1512–1589), historian and cartographer,
     * Michał Sędziwój (1566–1636), alchemist and chemist,
     * Kazimierz Siemienowicz (1600–1651), military engineer, artillery
       specialist and a founder of rocketry,
     * Johannes Hevelius (1611–1687), astronomer, founder of lunar
       topography.

   The many classics of Commonwealth literature include:
     * Jan Kochanowski, (1530–1584), writer, dramatist and poet;
     * Wacław Potocki, (1621–1696), writer, poet;
     * Ignacy Krasicki, (1735–1801), writer, poet, fabulist, author of the
       first Polish novel;
     * Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz, (1758–1841), writer, dramatist and poet.

   Many szlachta members wrote memoirs and diaries. Perhaps the most
   famous are the Memoirs of Polish History by Albrycht Stanisław
   Radziwiłł (1595–1656) and the Memoirs of Jan Chryzostom Pasek (ca. 1636
   – ca. 1701).

   Magnates often undertook construction projects as monuments to
   themselves: churches, cathedrals, and palaces like the present-day
   Presidential Palace in Warsaw built by Grand Hetman Stanisław
   Koniecpolski herbu Pobóg. The largest projects involved entire towns,
   although in time many of them would lapse into obscurity or be totally
   abandoned. Usually they were named after the sponsoring magnate. Among
   the most famous is the town of Zamość, founded by Jan Zamoyski and
   designed by the Italian architect Bernardo Morando.

Szlachta and Sarmatism

   City hall, Zamość
   Enlarge
   City hall, Zamość

   The prevalent ideology of the szlachta became " Sarmatism", named after
   the Sarmatians, alleged ancestors of the Poles. This belief system was
   an important part of the szlachta's culture, penetrating all aspects of
   its life. Sarmatism enshrined equality among szlachta, horseback
   riding, tradition, provincial rural life, peace and pacifism;
   championed oriental-inspired attire ( żupan, kontusz, sukmana, pas
   kontuszowy, delia, szabla); and served to integrate the multi-ethnic
   nobility by creating an almost nationalistic sense of unity and of
   pride in the szlachta's Golden Freedoms.

   In its early, idealistic form, Sarmatism represented a positive
   cultural movement: it supported religious belief, honesty, national
   pride, courage, equality and freedom. In time, however, it became
   distorted. Late extreme Sarmatism turned belief into bigotry, honesty
   into political naïveté, pride into arrogance, courage into stubbornness
   and freedom into anarchy.

Demographics and religion

   King Zygmunt's Column, erected 1644 in front of Warsaw Castle
   Enlarge
   King Zygmunt's Column, erected 1644 in front of Warsaw Castle
   Cossack's wedding. Painting by Józef Brandt.
   Enlarge
   Cossack's wedding. Painting by Józef Brandt.

   The population of the Commonwealth of Both Nations was never
   overwhelmingly either Roman Catholic or Polish. The Commonwealth
   comprised primarily four nations: Lithuanians, Poles, Ukrainians and
   Belarusians (the latter referred usually as the Ruthenians). In 1618,
   the Commonwealth population of 11,5 millions could be roughly divided
   into: Poles, 4,5m, Lithuanians, 1,5m, Belorusians (Ruthenians) 2,25m,
   Ukrainians (the so-called "Volhynians"), 2m, Prussians 0,75m, Livonians
   0,5m. This circumstance resulted from Poland's possession of Ukraine
   and confederation with Lithuania, in both of which countries ethnic
   Poles were a distinct minority. To be Polish, in the non-Polish lands
   of the Commonwealth, was then much less an index of ethnicity than of
   religion and rank; it was a designation largely reserved for the landed
   noble class (szlachta), which included Poles but also many members of
   non-Polish origin who converted to Catholicism in increasing numbers
   with each following generation. For the non-Polish noble such
   conversion meant a final step of Polonization that followed the
   adoption of the Polish language and culture. Poland, as the culturally
   most advanced part of the Commonwealth, with the royal court, the
   capital, the largest cities, the second-oldest university in Central
   Europe (after Prague), and the more liberal and democractic social
   institutions has proven an irrestable magnet for the non-Polish
   nobility in the Commonwealth.

   As a result, in the eastern territories a Polish (or Polonized)
   aristocracy dominated a peasantry whose great majority was neither
   Polish nor Roman Catholic. Moreover, the decades of peace brought huge
   colonization efforts to Ukraine, heightening the tensions among nobles,
   Jews, Cossacks (traditionally Orthodox), Polish and Ruthenian peasants.
   The latter, deprived of their native protectors among the Ruthenian
   nobility, turned for protection to cossacks that facilitated violence
   that in the end broke the Commonwealth. The tensions were aggravated by
   conflicts between Eastern Orthodoxy and the Greek Catholic Church
   following the Union of Brest, overall discrimination of Orthodox
   religions by dominant Catholicism, and several Cossack uprisings. In
   the west and north, many cities had sizable German minorities, often
   belonging to Reformed churches. The Commonwealth had also one of the
   largest Jewish diasporas in the world.

   Until the Reformation, the szlachta were mostly Catholic or Eastern
   Orthodox. However, many families quickly adopted the Reformed religion.
   After the Counter-Reformation, when the Roman Catholic Church regained
   power in Poland, the szlachta became almost exclusively Roman Catholic,
   despite the fact that Roman Catholicism was not a majority religion
   (the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches counted approximately 40% of
   the population each, while the remaining 20% were Jews and members of
   various Protestant churches). It should be noted that the
   Counter-Reformation in Poland, influenced by the Commonwealth tradition
   of religious tolerance, was based mostly on Jesuit propaganda, and was
   very peaceful when compared to excesses such as the Thirty Years' War
   elsewhere in Europe.

Provinces and geography

   Outline of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth with its major
   subdivisions as of 1619 superimposed on present-day national borders
   Enlarge
   Outline of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth with its major
   subdivisions as of 1619 superimposed on present-day national borders

   The lands that once belonged to the Commonwealth are now largely
   distributed among several Central and East European countries: Poland,
   Lithuania, Latvia, Ukraine, Belarus and Russia, with smaller pieces in
   Estonia, Slovakia, Romania and Moldova.

   While the term "Poland" was also commonly used to denote this whole
   polity, Poland was in fact only part of a greater whole — the
   Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which comprised primarily two parts:
     * the Crown of the Polish Kingdom (Poland proper), colloquially "the
       Crown"; and
     * the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, colloquially "Lithuania."

   The Crown in turn comprised two great regions (" prowincjas"): Greater
   Poland and Lesser Poland. These and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, were
   the only three regions that were properly termed "provinces." The
   Commonwealth was further divided into smaller administrative units
   known as voivodships (województwa). Each voivodship was governed by a
   voivod (wojewoda, governor). Voivodships were further divided into
   starostwa, each starostwo being governed by a starosta. Cities were
   governed by castellans. There were frequent exceptions to these rules,
   often involving the ziemia subunit of administration: for details on
   the administrative structure of the Commonwealth, see the article on
   offices in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

   Other notable regions of the Commonwealth often referred to, without
   respect to province or voivodship divisions, include:
     * Lesser Poland ( Polish: Małopolska), southern Poland, with its
       capital at Kraków;
     * Greater Poland (Polish: Wielkopolska), west–central Poland,
       including much of the area drained by the Warta River and its
       tributaries;
     * Masovia (Polish: Mazowsze), central Poland, with its capital at
       Warsaw;
     * Duchy of Livonia (Polish: Inflanty), a northern fief of the
       Commonwealth from 1561, lost to Sweden in the 1620s and in 1660;
     * Courland (Polish: Kurlandia), a northern fief of the Commonwealth.
       It established a colony in Tobago in 1637 and on St. Andrews Island
       at the Gambia River in 1651 (see Courland colonization);
     * Royal Prussia (Polish: Prusy Królewskie), incorporated into the
       Crown in 1569, at the time of the Commonwealth's formation;
     * Pomerania (Polish: Pomorze) is the term for the southern shore of
       the Baltic Sea, partially outside the Royal Prussia;
     * Ruthenia ( Polish: Ruś), the eastern Commonwealth, adjoining
       Russia;
     * Samogitia (Polish: Żmudź), western Lithuania.
     * Silesia (Polish: Śląsk) was not part of the Commonwealth, but small
       parts belonged to various Commonwealth kings; in particular, the
       Vasa kings were dukes of Opole from 1645 to 1666.

   Commonwealth borders shifted with wars and treaties, sometimes several
   times in a decade, especially in the eastern and southern regions.
   16th-century map of Europe by Gerardus Mercator.
   Enlarge
   16th-century map of Europe by Gerardus Mercator.

   Thought was given at various times to the creation of a Duchy of
   Ruthenia, particularly during the 1648 Cossack insurrection against
   Polish rule in Ukraine. Such a Duchy, as proposed in the 1658 Treaty of
   Hadiach, would have been a full member of the Commonwealth, which would
   thereupon have become a tripartite Polish-Lithuanian-Ruthenian
   Commonwealth or Commonwealth of Three Nations, but due to szlachta
   demands, Muscovite invasion, and division among the Cossacks, the plan
   was never implemented. For similar reasons, plans for a
   Polish-Lithuanian-Muscovite Commonwealth also were never realized,
   although during the Polish-Muscovite War (1605-1618) the Polish Prince
   (later, King) Władysław IV Waza was briefly elected Tsar of Muscovy.

   The Crown had about double the population of Lithuania and five times
   the income of the latter's treasury. As with other countries, the
   borders, area and population of the Commonwealth varied over time.
   After the Peace of Jam Zapolski ( 1582), the Commonwealth had
   approximately 815,000 km² area and a population of 6.5 million. After
   the Truce of Deulino ( 1618), the Commonwealth had an area of some 1
   million km² (990,000 km²) and a population of 10–11 million (including
   some 4 million Poles). In the 16th century, the Polish bishop and
   cartographer Martin Kromer published a Latin atlas, entitled Poland:
   about Its Location, People, Culture, Offices and the Polish
   Commonwealth, which was regarded as the most comprehensive guide to the
   country.

   Kromer's works and other contemporary maps, such as those of Gerardus
   Mercator, show the Commonwealth as mostly plains. The Commonwealth's
   southeastern part, the Kresy, was famous for its steppes. The
   Carpathian Mountains formed part of the southern border, with the Tatra
   Mountain chain the highest, and the Baltic Sea formed the
   Commonwealth's northern border. As with most European countries at the
   time, the Commonwealth had extensive forest cover, especially in the
   east. Today, what remains of the Białowieża Forest constitutes the last
   largely intact primeval forest in Europe.

Voivodships of the Commonwealth

   Note that some sources use the word palatinate instead of voivodship.

Greater Poland

   Map showing voivodships of the Commonwealth of the Two Nations
   Enlarge
   Map showing voivodships of the Commonwealth of the Two Nations
     * Brześć Kujawski Voivodship (województwo brzesko-kujawskie, Brześć
       Kujawski)
     * Gniezno Voivodship (województwo gnieźnieńskie, Gniezno) from 1768
     * Inowrocław Voivodship (województwo inowrocławskie, Inowrocław)
     * Kalisz Voivodship (województwo kaliskie, Kalisz)
     * Łęczyca Voivodship (województwo łęczyckie, Łęczyca)
     * Mazovian Voivodship (województwo mazowieckie, of Mazowsze, Warsaw)
       consisting of
          + County of Ciechanów (ziemia ciechanowska, Ciechanów)
          + County of Czersk (ziemia czerska, Czersk)
          + County of Liw (ziemia liwska, Liw)
          + County of Łomża (ziemia łomżyńska, Łomża)
          + County of Nur (ziemia nurska, Nur)
          + County of Różan (ziemia różańska, Różan)
          + County of Warszawa (ziemia warszawska, Warsaw)
          + County of Wisk (ziemia wiska, Wizna)
     * Poznań Voivodship (województwo poznańskie, Poznań)
     * Płock Voivodship (województwo płockie, Płock) consisting of
          + County of Wyszogród (ziemia wyszogrodzka, Wyszogród)
          + County of Zawkrzeń (ziemia zawkrzeńska, Zawkrzeń)
     * Podlasie Voivodship (województwo podlaskie, Drohiczyn) consisting
       of:
          + County of Bielsk (ziemia bielska, Bielsk)
          + Country of Drohiczyn (ziemia drohicka, Drohiczyn)
          + Country of Mielnik (ziemia mielnicka, Mielnik)
     * Rawa Voivodship (województwo rawskie, Rawa) consisting of
          + County of Rawa (ziemia rawska, Rawa)
          + County of Gostyń (ziemia gostyńska, Gostyń)
          + County of Sochaczew (ziema sochaczewska, Sochaczew)
     * Sieradz Voivodship (województwo sieradzkie, Sieradz)
     * County of Dobrzyń (ziemia dobrzyńska, Dobrzyń)
     * County of Michałów (ziemia michałkowicka, Michałów)
     * County of Wieluń (ziemia wieluńska, Wieluń)
     * County of Wschów (ziema wschowska, Wschów)

Lesser Poland

     * Bełz Voivodship (województwo bełzkie, Bełz)
     * Bracław Voivodship (województwo bracławskie, Bracław)
     * Czernichów Voivodship (województwo czernichowskie, Czernichów)
     * Kijów Voivodship (województwo kijowskie, Kijów)
     * Kraków Voivodship (województwo krakowskie, Kraków)
     * Lublin Voivodship (województwo lubelskie, Lublin)
     * Podole Voivodship (województwo podolskie, Kamieniec Podolski)
     * Ruś Voivodship (województwo ruskie, Lwów), divided into
     * Sandomierz Voivodship (województwo sandomierskie, Sandomierz)
     * Wołyń Voivodship (województwo wołyńskie, Łuck)
          + County of Halicz (ziemia halicka, Halicz)
          + County of Lwów (ziemia lwowska, Lwów)
          + Country of Przemyśl (ziemia przemyslka, Przemyśl)
          + County of Sanock (ziemia sanocka, Sanok)
     * Duchy od Siewierz (księstwo Siewierskie, Siewierz)
     * County of Chełm (ziemia chełmska, Chełm)
     * Principality of Oświęcim and Zator ( Oświęcim, Zator)

Grand Duchy of Lithuania

     * Duchy of Samogita (principality of Samogitia, księstwo żmudzkie,
       Varniai-Medininkai)
     * Brześć Litewski Voivodship (województwo brzesko-litewskie, Brześć
       Litewski)
     * Mścisław Voivodship (województwo mścisławskie, Mścisław)
     * Mińsk Voivodship (województwo mińskie, Mińsk)
     * Nowogródek Voivodship (województwo nowogrodzkie, Nowogrodek)
     * Połock Voivodship (województwo połockie, Połock)
     * Smoleńsk Voivodship (województwo smoleńskie, Smoleńsk)
     * Troki Voivodship (województwo trockie, Trakai)
     * Wilno Voivodship (województwo wileńskie, Vilnius)
     * Witebsk Voivodship (województwo witebskie, Witebsk)

Royal Prussia

     * Duchy of Warmia (Księstwo Warmińskie, episcopal principality of
       Warmia, Lidzbark Warmiński)
     * Chełmno Voivodship (województwo chełmińskie, Chełmno)
     * Malbork Voivodship (województwo malborskie, Malbork)
     * Pomeranian Voivodship (województwo pomorskie, Gdańsk)

Duchy of Livonia (Inflanty)

     * Duchy of Courland and Semigalia (księstwo Kurlandii i Semigalii,
       Mitawa)
     * Dorpat Voivodship (województwo dorpackie, Dorpat) from 1598 to
       1620s
     * Livonian Voivodship (województwo inflanckie, Dyneburg) from 1620s
     * Parnawa Voivodship (województwo parnawskie, Parnawa) from 1598 to
       1620s
     * Wenden Voivodship (województwo wendeńskie, Wenden) from 1598 to
       1620s

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