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Qur'an

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Religious texts

   Part of a series on the
   Qur'an
   Mus'haf
     * Sura
     * Ayah

   Qur'an reading
     * Tajwid
     * Tarteel
     * Manzil
     * Juz'

                * Hizb
                * Hafiz
                * Qari'
                * Rasm

   Qur'an translations
     * List of translations of the Qur'an

   Origin and development
     * Revelation of the Qur'an
     * Madinan sura
     * Meccan sura
     * Standard Qur'an

   Tafsir
     * Persons related to verses
     * Asbab al-nuzul
     * Naskh
     * Similarities to the Bible
     * Tahrif
     * Dhul-Qarnayn ( Alexander or Cyrus)
     * Bakkah
     * Muqatta'at
     * Esoteric interpretation

   Qur'an and Sunnah
     * Qur'anic literalism
     * Qur'an and miracles
     * Women in the Qur'an

   Views on the Qur'an
     * Shi'a view of the Qur'an
     * Criticism of the Qur'an
     * Qur'an desecration
     * Surah of Wilaya and Nurayn
     * Satanic Verses
     * Tanazzulat
     * Qisas Al-Anbiya
     * Beit Al Qur'an

   Part of a series of articles on

   Islam


   Islam

   History of Islam
   Beliefs and practices

   Oneness of God
   Profession of Faith
   Prayer • Fasting
   Charity • Pilgrimage
   Major figures

   Muhammad
   Household of Muhammad
   Prophets of Islam
   Companions of Muhammad
   Texts & Laws

   Qur'an • Sunnah • Hadith
   Fiqh • Sharia • Theology
   Major branches

   Sunni • Shi'a
   Societal aspects

   Academics • History
   Philosophy • Science
   Art • Architecture • Cities
   Calendar • Holidays • Women
   Leaders • Politics • Islamism
   See also

   Vocabulary of Islam

   The Qur'ān (Arabic: القرآن ‎ al-qurʼān, literally "the recitation";
   also called al-qurʼān al-karīm "The Noble Qur'an"; also transliterated
   as Quran, Koran, and Al-Quran), is the central religious text of Islam.
   Muslims believe the Qur'an, in its original Arabic, to be the literal
   word of God that was revealed to Muhammad over a period of twenty-three
   years until his death. Muslims regard it as God's final revelation to
   humankind and view it as the closest thing to a part of God in the
   world. Muslims also call the Qur'an the "Final Testament", "The Book",
   "Book of God" or "The Revelation."

   The Qu'ranic revelations were originally memorized by Muhammad's
   companions as Muhammad spoke them, with some being written down by one
   or more companions on whatever was at hand, from stones to pieces of
   bark. Compilations of the Qu'ran began under the Caliph Umar, but it
   was Uthman who decided upon a definitive copy and destroyed all other
   versions. All Muslims use the same Qur'an with no differences among the
   sects. The Qu'ran has never changed in substance since. Muslims
   generally consider it to be the most beautiful book in Arabic.

Etymology

   Within Arabic grammar, the word "qur'an" constitutes a masdar ( verbal
   noun) and is derived from the Arabic verb قرأ qara'a ("to read" or "to
   recite") which is the root. The metre (الوزن) of this word is "فُعلان"
   which is a metre that indicates excessiveness, diligence or devotion in
   doing the act. For example, the verb غفر (ghafara), which means “to
   forgive” has a masdar of غفران (ghufran) which means an excessive or
   diligent act of forgiveness. Similarly, the word Qur’an conveys the
   meaning of diligent reading. The word qur'an has been used within the
   Qur'an in its generic sense of "reading", "recital", as in 75:18 (with
   -a accusative suffix + -hu 3rd person masculine singular possessive
   suffix):

          And when We read [qara'-] it, follow thou the reading
          [qur'ān-ahu] ( Pickthall)
          But when We have promulgated [qara'-] it, follow thou its
          recital [qur'ān-ahu] (as promulgated) ( Yusuf Ali)

   The word is used in the Qur'an itself as a term for the Qur'an, e.g.
   12:2:

          Lo! We have revealed it, a Lecture [qur'ān] in Arabic, that ye
          may understand. ( Pickthall's translation)
          We have sent it down as an Arabic Qur'an, in order that ye may
          learn wisdom. ( Yusuf Ali's translation)

   However, there is some question as to whether this word was formed
   within Arabic from this root or borrowed separately from Syriac. The
   latter hypothesis was first proposed by the German Semitic scholar
   Theodore Nöldeke who argued in his 1860 Geschichte des Qorâns (History
   of the Qur'an) that the word qur'ān might be a borrowing from the
   Syriac noun ܩܪܝܢܐ qeryānâ (whose meanings include "reading" and
   "lection, lesson"), itself derived from the verb ܩܪܐ qrâ ("to read,
   recite; to study"):

     "Since a cultural word like "to read" can not be proto-Semitic, we
     may assume that it has entered Arabia, and probably from the North
     ... Since Syriac has, next to the verb קּרא, also the noun qeryānā,
     meaning both ἀνάγνωσις ("reading, reading out") and ἀνάγνωσμα
     ("lection, lecture"), and because of the above mentioned, the
     assumption of probability increases, that the term Qur'an is not an
     internal Arabic development from the infinitive with the same
     meaning, but a borrowing from the Syriac word that has been adapted
     according to the type fulʻān."

   More recent proponents of this view include Christoph Luxenberg (who
   takes it as evidence that the Qur'an was itself originally a Syriac
   lectionary).

Format of the Qur'an

   A copy of the Qur'an opened for reading.
   Enlarge
   A copy of the Qur'an opened for reading.

   The Qur'an consists of 114 chapters ( surahs) with a total of 6,236
   verses ( ayat).

   Each chapter, or surah, is generally known by a name derived from that
   chapter (see List of chapter names). The chapters are not arranged in
   chronological order (i.e. in the order in which Islamic scholars
   believe they were revealed) but in a different order, roughly
   descending by size, but aiding oral memory (surah2 Aya97).
     * Index of the Qur'an
     * Quran Verses in Chronological Order
     * Quran Verses in Traditional Order
     * Quran Verses in Alphabetical Order
     * Quran Chapters & Verses Numerical Structure

Literary structure of the Qur'an

   Issa Boullata, professor of Arabic literature and Islamic studies at
   McGill university, gives the following evaluation of the literary
   structure of the Qur'an:

     The message of the Qur'an is couched in various literary structures,
     which are widely considered to be the most perfect example of the
     Arabic Language. Arabic grammars were written based upon the
     qur'anic language, and, by general consensus of Muslim rhetoricians,
     the qur'anic idiom is considered to be sublime... In conclusion, it
     can be said that the Qur'an utilizes a wide variety of literary
     devices to convey its message. In its original Arabic idiom, the
     individual components of the text — suras and ayat — employ phonetic
     and thematic structures that assist the audience’s efforts to recall
     the message of the text. Whereas the scholars of Arabic are largely
     agreed that the Qur'an represents the standards by which other
     literary productions in Arabic are measured, believing Muslims
     maintain that the Qur'an in inimitable with respect to both content
     and style.

Influence of Qur'an on the Arabic literature

   Wadad Kadi, Professor of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations at
   Chicago university and Mustansir Mir, Professor of Islamic studies at
   Youngstown State University state that:

     Although Arabic, as a language and a literary tradition, was quite
     well developed by the time of Muhammad's prophetic activity, it was
     only after the emergence of Islam, with its founding scripture in
     Arabic, that the language reached its utmost capacity of expression,
     and the literature its highest point of complexity and
     sophistication. Indeed, it probably is no exaggeration to say that
     the Qur'an was one of the most conspicuous forces in the making of
     classical and post-classical Arabic literature.

     The main areas in which the Qur'an exerted noticeable influence on
     Arabic literature are diction and themes; other areas are related to
     the literary aspects of the Qur'an particularly oaths (q.v.),
     metaphors, motifs, and symbols. As far as diction is concerned, one
     could say that qur'anic words, idioms, and expressions, especially
     "loaded" and formulatic phrases, appear in practically all genres of
     literature and in such abundance that it is simply impossible to
     compile a full record of them. For not only did the Qur'an create an
     entirely new linguistic corpus to express its message, it also
     endowed old, pre-Islamic words with new meanings and it is these
     meanings that took root in the language and subsequently in the
     literature...

Stylistic attributes

   The Qur'an mixes narrative, exhortation, and legal prescription. The
   suras frequently combine all these modes, not always in ways that seem
   obvious to the reader. Muslims often argue that the uniqueness of the
   Qur'anic style supports belief in its divine origin.

   There are many repeated epithets (e.g. "Lord of the heavens and the
   earth"), sentences ("And when We said unto the angels: Prostrate
   yourselves before Adam, they fell prostrate, all save Iblis"), and even
   stories (such as the story of Adam) in the Qur'an. Muslim scholars
   explain these repetitions as emphasizing and explaining different
   aspects of important themes.

   The Qur'an is partly rhymed, partly prose. Traditionally, the Arabic
   grammarians consider the Qur'an to be a genre unique unto itself,
   neither poetry (defined as speech with metre and rhyme) nor prose
   (defined as normal speech or rhymed but non-metrical speech, saj').
   11th century Persian Qur'an folio page in kufic script
   Enlarge
   11th century Persian Qur'an folio page in kufic script

   The Qur'an often, although by no means always, uses loose rhyme between
   successive verses; for instance, at the beginning of surat al-Fajr:

          Wal-fajr(i),
          Wa layâlin `ashr(in),
          Wash-shaf`i wal-watr(i)
          Wal-layli 'idhâ yasr(î),
          Hal fî dhâlika qasamun li-dhî ḥijr(in).

   or, to give a less loose example, the whole of surat al-Fil:

          `A-lam tara kayfa fa`ala rabbuka bi-`aṣḥâbi l-fîl(i),
          `A-lam yaj`al kaydahum fî taḍlîl(in)
          Wa-`arsala `alayhim ṭayran `abâbîl(a)
          Tarmîhim bi-ḥijâratin min sijjîl(in)
          Fa-ja`alahum ka-`aṣfin ma'kûl(in).

   (Note that verse-final vowels are unpronounced when the verses are
   enunciated separately, a regular pausal phenomenon in classical Arabic.
   In these cases, î and û often rhyme, and there is some scope for
   variation in syllable-final consonants.) It should also be noted that
   many words rhyme in Arabic with or without the addition of a case
   ending suffix due to the repetition of common vowel sounds. Arabic
   poetry frequently makes use of this type of rhyme, often referred to as
   monorhyme.

   Some suras also include a refrain repeated every few verses, for
   instance ar-Rahman ("Then which of the favours of your Lord will ye
   deny?") and al-Mursalat ("Woe unto the repudiators on that day!").
   18th century AD Qur'an
   Enlarge
   18th century AD Qur'an

   Islamic scholars divide the verses of the Qur'an into those revealed at
   Mecca (Makka), and those revealed at Medina (Madina) after the Hijra.
   In general, the earlier Makkan suras tend to have shorter verses than
   the later Madinan suras, which deal with legal matters, and are quite
   long. Contrast the Makkan verses above with a verse from al-Baqara such
   as 2:229:

          "A divorce is only permissible twice: after that, the parties
          should either hold Together on equitable terms, or separate with
          kindness. It is not lawful for you, (Men), to take back any of
          your gifts (from your wives), except when both parties fear that
          they would be unable to keep the limits ordained by God. If ye
          (judges) do indeed fear that they would be unable to keep the
          limits ordained by God, there is no blame on either of them if
          she give something for her freedom. These are the limits
          ordained by God. so do not transgress them if any do transgress
          the limits ordained by God, such persons wrong (Themselves as
          well as others)." (Yusuf Ali)

   Similarly, the Madinan suras tend to be longer, including the longest
   sura of the Qur'an, al-Baqara.

The beginnings of the suras

   Every sura but the ninth is preceded by the words Bismillah ir-Rahman
   ir-Rahim (Arabic: بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم ). This is most frequently
   translated "In the Name of God, Most Gracious, Most Merciful."
   Interestingly, the Arabic words translated as "most gracious"
   (رحمان)(Rahman) and "most merciful" (رحيم)(Rahim) derive from the same
   triliteral (RHM; ر ح م), or "mercy." Grammatically, the form of the
   first word conveys magnitude, while that of the second conveys
   permanence. Therefore, the chapter openings may better be translated as
   "In the name of God, the most merciful, the ever merciful." This double
   declaration at the start of most chapters suggests the importance of
   mercy in the Muslim conception of God.

   Twenty-nine suras begin with letters taken from a restricted subset of
   the Arabic alphabet. Thus, for instance, surat Maryam (Arabic for Mary,
   mother of Jesus) begins

   19:1 Kaf Ha Ya 'Ain Sad

   19:2 (This is) a recital of the Mercy of thy Lord to His servant
   Zakariya."

   While there has been some speculation on the meaning of these letters,
   many Muslim scholars believe that their full meaning may never be
   grasped. However, they have observed that in all but 4 of the 29 cases,
   these letters are almost immediately followed by mention of the
   Qur'anic revelation itself. Western scholars' efforts have been
   tentative; one proposal, for instance, was that they were initials or
   monograms of the scribes who had originally transcribed the sura. See
   Qur'anic initial letters for a fuller discussion.

The temporal order of Qur'anic verses

   Belief in the Qur'an's direct, uncorrupted divine origin is considered
   fundamental to Islam by most Muslims.

          "This is the Book; in it is guidance sure, without doubt, to
          those who fear God" 2:2

Origin and development of the Qur'an

   Modern Western historians have concluded that Muhammad was sincere in
   his claim of receiving revelation, "for this alone makes credible the
   development of a great religion." Modern historians generally decline
   to address the further question of whether the messages Muhammad
   reported being revealed to him were from "his unconscious, the
   collective unconscious functioning in him, or from some divine source",
   but they acknowledge that the material came from "beyond his conscious
   mind"

   According to the Qur'an:

     "This Qur'an is not such as can be produced by other than Allah; on
     the contrary it is a confirmation of (revelations) that went before
     it, and a fuller explanation of the Book - wherein there is no doubt
     - from the Lord of the worlds. Or do they say, "He forged it"? say:
     "Bring then a Sura like unto it, and call (to your aid) anyone you
     can besides Allah, if it be ye speak the truth!" 10:37&38 "

   Some non-Muslims say that the Qur'an originated and derived from the
   Bible. Although the Qur'an itself confirms the similarity between it
   and the former books (the Torah and the Gospel) 3:3, but tells

     "We know indeed that they say, "It is a man that teaches him." The
     tongue of him they wickedly point to is notably foreign, while this
     is Arabic, pure and clear. 16:103"

   Qur'an attributes this similarity to their unique origin and says all
   of them have been revealed by the God. 2:285 Based on Islamic
   traditions and legends, it is generally believed that Muhammad could
   neither read nor write, but would simply recite what was revealed to
   him for his companions to write down and memorize. According to the
   Qur'an

     "And thou wast not (able) to recite a Book before this (Book came),
     nor art thou (able) to transcribe it with thy right hand: In that
     case, indeed, would the talkers of vanities have doubted. 29:48 "
     "Say: "If Allah had so willed, I should not have rehearsed it to
     you, nor would He have made it known to you. A whole life-time
     before this have I tarried amongst you: will ye not then
     understand?" 10:16 "

   However some scholars - ( Christoph Luxenberg, Maxime Rodinson, William
   Montgomery Watt, etc.) - have argued that this claim is based on weak
   traditions and that, in regard of many aspects concerning Muhammad's
   biography and teachings, it is not convincing:

   "The Meccans were in general familiar with reading and writing. A
   certain amount of writing would be necessary for commercial purposes
   ... In view of this familiarity with writing among the Meccans
   particularly, both for records and for religious scriptures, there is a
   presumption that Muhammad knew at least enough to keep commercial
   records ... The probability is that Muhammad was able to read and write
   sufficiently for business purposes, but it seems certain that he had
   not read any [religious] scriptures." - W. Montgomery Watt in
   "Muhammad's Mecca"

   "Whatever Arabic tradition may have assumed from a wrong interpretation
   of a word in the Koran, it seems certain that Muhammad learned to read
   and write. But except for a few vague and unreliable pointers in his
   life and work we have no way of knowing the extent of his learning." -
   M. Rodinson in "Mohammed"

   Adherents to Islam hold that the wording of the Qur'anic text available
   today corresponds exactly to that revealed to Muhammad himself: words
   of God delivered to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel. The Qur'an is
   not only considered by Muslims to be a guide but also as a sign of the
   prophethood of Muhammad and the truth of the religion. Muslims argue
   that it is not possible for a human to produce a book like the Qur'an.
   According to Qur'an

     "And if ye are in doubt as to what We have revealed from time to
     time to Our servant, then produce a Sura like thereunto; and call
     your witnesses or helpers (If there are any) besides Allah, if your
     (doubts) are true. But if ye cannot- and of a surety ye cannot- then
     fear the Fire whose fuel is men and stones,- which is prepared for
     those who reject Faith. " 2:23&24

   Some non-muslim scholars accept a similar account, but without
   accepting any supernatural claims: they say that Muhammad put forth
   verses and laws that he claimed to be of divine origin; that his
   followers memorized or wrote down his revelations; that numerous
   versions of these revelations circulated after his death in 632 CE, and
   that first Abu Bakr ordered its compilation and then Uthman ordered the
   collection and ordering of this mass of material circa 650-656. These
   scholars point to many attributes of the Qur'an as indicative of a
   human collection process that was extremely respectful of a
   miscellaneous collection of original texts.

   Other scholars have proposed that some development of the text of the
   Qur'an took place after the death of Muhammad and before the currently
   accepted version of the Qur'an stabilized. Western academic scholars
   associated with such theories include John Wansbrough, Patricia Crone,
   Michael Cook, Christoph Luxenberg, and Gerd R. Puin.

   Another scholar, James A. Bellamy, has proposed some emendations to the
   text of the Qur'an.

The language of the Qur'an

   The Qur'an was one of the first texts written in Arabic. It is written
   in the classical Arabic which is also the Arabic of pre-islamic poetry
   including the Mu'allaqat, or Suspended Odes.

   Soon after Muhammad's death in 632 CE, armies led by his followers
   burst out of Arabia and conquered the Near East, Northern Africa,
   Central Asia, and parts of Europe. Arab rulers had millions of foreign
   subjects, with whom they had to communicate. Thus, the language rapidly
   changed in response to this new situation, losing complexities of case
   and obscure vocabulary. Several generations after the prophet's death,
   many words used in the Qur'an had become opaque to ordinary sedentary
   Arabic-speakers, as Arabic had changed so much, so rapidly. The Bedouin
   speech changed at a considerably slower rate, however, and early Arabic
   lexicographers sought out Bedouin speech as well as pre-Islamic poetry
   to explain difficult words or elucidate points of grammar. Partly in
   response to the religious need to explain the Qur'an to Muslims who
   were not familiar with Qur'anic Arabic, Arabic grammar and lexicography
   soon became important sciences. The model for the Arabic literary
   language remains to this day the speech used in Qur'anic times, rather
   than the current spoken dialects.^[ citations needed]

The Qur'an for reading and recitation

   In addition to and largely independent of the division into surahs,
   there are various ways of dividing the Qur'an into parts of
   approximately equal length for convenience in reading, recitation and
   memorization. The seven manazil (stations) and the thirty ajza' (parts)
   can be used to work through the entire Qur’an in a week or a month, one
   manzil or one juz' a day, respectively. A juz' is sometimes further
   divided into two ahzab (groups), and each hizb is in turn subdivided
   into four quarters. A different structure is provided by the ruku'at
   (sing. Raka'ah), semantical units resembling paragraphs and comprising
   roughly ten ayat each.

   A hafiz is one who has memorized the entire text of the Qur'an, and is
   able to recite it properly ( Tajweed). All Muslims must memorize at
   least some parts of the Qu'ran, in order to perform their daily
   prayers.

Qur'an recitation

   The very word Qur'an is usually translated as "recital," indicating
   that it cannot exist as a mere text. It has always been transmitted
   orally as well as textually.

   To even be able to perform salat (prayer), a mandatory obligation in
   Islam, a Muslim is required to learn at least some suras of the Qur'an
   (typically starting with the first sura, al-Fatiha, known as the "seven
   oft-repeated verses," and then moving on to the shorter ones at the
   end). Until one has learned al-Fatiha, a Muslim can only say phrases
   like "praise be to God" during the salat.

   A person whose recital repertoire encompasses the whole Qur'an is
   called a qari' (قَارٍئ) or hafiz (which translate as "reciter" or
   "protector," respectively). Muhammad is regarded as the first hafiz.
   Recitation ( tilawa تلاوة) of the Qur'an is a fine art in the Muslim
   world.

Schools of recitation

   A fragment from the Qu'ran, Sura 33: 73–74
   Enlarge
   A fragment from the Qu'ran, Sura 33: 73–74

   There are several schools of Qur'anic recitation, all of which are
   permissible pronunciations of the Uthmanic rasm. Today, ten canonical
   and at least four uncanonical recitations of the Qur'an exist. For a
   recitation to be canonical it must conform to three conditions:
    1. It must match the rasm, letter for letter.
    2. It must conform with the syntactic rules of the Arabic language.
    3. It must have a continuous isnad to Muhammad through tawatur,
       meaning that it has to be related by a large group of people to
       another down the isnad chain.

   Ibn Mujahid documented seven such recitations and Ibn Al-Jazri added
   three. They are:
    1. Nafi` of Madina (169/ 785), transmitted by Warsh and Qaloon
    2. Ibn Kathir of Makka (120/ 737), transmitted by Al-Bazzi and Qonbul
    3. Ibn `Amer of Damascus (118/ 736), transmitted by Hisham and Ibn
       Zakwan
    4. Abu `Amr of Basra (148/ 770), transmitted by Al-Duri and Al-Soosi
    5. `Asim of Kufa (127/ 744), transmitted by Sho`bah and Hafs
    6. Hamza of Kufa (156/ 772), transmitted by Khalaf and Khallad
    7. Al-Kisa'i of Kufa (189/ 804), transmitted by Abul-Harith and
       Al-Duri
    8. Abu-Ja`far of Madina, transmitted by Ibn Wardan and Ibn Jammaz
    9. Ya`qoob of Yemen, transmitted by Ruways and Rawh
   10. Khalaf of Kufa, transmitted by Ishaaq and Idris

   These recitations differ in the vocalization (tashkil تشكيل) of a few
   words, which in turn gives a complementary meaning to the word in
   question according to the rules of Arabic grammar. For example, the
   vocalization of a verb can change its active and passive voice. It can
   also change its stem formation, implying intensity for example. Vowels
   may be elongated or shortened, and glottal stops ( hamzas) may be added
   or dropped, according to the respective rules of the particular
   recitation. For example, the name of archangel Gabriel is pronounced
   differently in different recitations: Jibrīl, Jabrīl, Jibra'īl, and
   Jibra'il. The name "Qur'an" is pronounced without the glottal stop (as
   "Qurān") in one recitation, and prophet Abraham's name is pronounced
   Ibrāhām in another.

   The more widely used narrations are those of Hafs (حفص عن عاصم), Warsh
   (ورش عن نافع), Qaloon (قالون عن نافع) and Al-Duri according to Abu `Amr
   (الدوري عن أبي عمرو). Muslims firmly believe that all canonical
   recitations were recited by the Prophet himself, citing the respective
   isnad chain of narration, and accept them as valid for worshipping and
   as a reference for rules of Sharia. The uncanonical recitations are
   called "explanatory" for their role in giving a different perspective
   for a given verse or ayah. Today several dozen persons hold the title
   "Memorizer of the Ten Recitations." This is considered to be a great
   accomplishment among the followers of Islam.

Writing and printing the Qur'an

   Page from a Qur'an 'Umar-i Aqta' Iran, present-day Afghanistan, Timurid
   dynasty, circa 1400 Opaque watercolor, ink and gold on paper Muqaqqaq
   script 170 x 109cm (66 15/16 x 42 15/16in.) Historical Region:
   Uzbekistan
   Enlarge
   Page from a Qur'an
   'Umar-i Aqta'
   Iran, present-day Afghanistan,
   Timurid dynasty, circa 1400
   Opaque watercolor, ink and gold on paper Muqaqqaq script
   170 x 109cm (66 15/16 x 42 15/16in.)
   Historical Region: Uzbekistan

   Most Muslims today use printed editions of the Qur'an. There are many
   editions, large and small, elaborate or plain, expensive or inexpensive
   . Bilingual forms with the Arabic on one side and a gloss into a more
   familiar language on the other are very popular.

   Qur'ans are produced in many different sizes, from extremely large
   Qur'ans for display purposes, to extremely small Qur'ans .

   Qur'ans were first printed from carved wooden blocks, one block per
   page. There are existing specimen of pages and blocks dating from the
   10th century CE. Mass-produced less expensive versions of the Qur'an
   were later produced by lithography, a technique for printing
   illustrations. Qur'ans so printed could reproduce the fine calligraphy
   of hand-made versions.

   The oldest surviving Qur'an for which movable type was used was printed
   in Venice in 1537/1538. It seems to have been prepared for sale in the
   Ottoman empire. Catherine the Great of Russia sponsored a printing of
   the Qur'an in 1787. This was followed by editions from Kazan (1828),
   Persia (1833) and Istanbul (1877) .

   It is extremely difficult to render the full Qur'an, with all the
   points, in computer code, such as Unicode. The Internet Sacred Text
   Archive makes computer files of the Qur'an freely available both as
   images and in a temporary Unicode version . Various designers and
   software firms have attempted to develop computer fonts that can
   adequately render the Qur'an. See for one such commercial font.

   Before printing was widely adopted, the Qur'an was transmitted by
   copyists and calligraphers. Since Muslim tradition felt that directly
   portraying sacred figures and events might lead to idolatry, it was
   considered wrong to decorate the Qur'an with pictures (as was often
   done for Christian texts, for example). Muslims instead lavished love
   and care upon the sacred text itself. Arabic is written in many
   scripts, some of which are both complex and beautiful. Arabic
   calligraphy is a highly honored art, much like Chinese calligraphy.
   Muslims also decorated their Qur'ans with abstract figures (
   arabesques), colored inks, and gold leaf. Pages from some of these
   antique Qur'ans are displayed throughout this article.

   Some Muslims believe that it is not only acceptable, but commendable to
   decorate everyday objects with Qur'anic verses, as daily reminders.
   Other Muslims feel that this is a misuse of Qur'anic verses; those who
   handle these objects will not have cleansed themselves properly and may
   use them without respect.

Translations of the Qur'an

   The Qur'an has been translated into many languages; there are several
   translations for many languages, including English. These translations
   are considered to be glosses for personal use only, and have no weight
   in serious religious discussion. Translation is an extremely difficult
   endeavor, because each translator must consult his or her own opinions
   and aesthetic sense in trying to replicate shades of meaning in another
   language; this inevitably changes the original text. Thus a translation
   is often referred to as an "interpretation," and is not considered a
   real Qur'an. Just as Jewish and Christian scholars turn to the earliest
   texts, in Hebrew or Greek, when it is a question of exactly what is
   meant by a certain passage, so Muslim scholars turn to the Qur'an in
   Arabic.

   The first translator of the Qur'an is Salman the Persian. He was one of
   Mohammed's nearest companions and translated the Qur'an during the 7th
   century - some of the people of Persia asked Salman al-Farisi to write
   to them something of the Qur'an, and he wrote to them the Fatihah in
   Persian.

   Robert of Ketton was the first person to translate the Qur'an into a
   Western language, Latin, in 1143. Alexander Ross offered the first
   English version in 1649. In 1734, George Sale produced the first
   scholarly translation of the Qur'an into English; another was produced
   by Richard Bell in 1937, and yet another by Arthur John Arberry in
   1955. All these translators were non-Muslims. There have been numerous
   translation by Muslims; the most popular of these are the translations
   by Dr. Muhammad Muhsin Khan, Dr. Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din al Hilali,
   Abdullah Yusuf Ali, M. H. Shakir, Muhammad Asad, and Marmaduke
   Pickthall.

   The English translators have sometimes favored archaic English words
   and constructions over their more modern or conventional equivalents;
   thus, for example, two widely-read translators, A. Yusuf Ali and M.
   Marmaduke Pickthall, use the plural and singular "ye" and "thou"
   instead of the more common " you." Another common stylistic decision
   has been to refrain from translating "Allah" — in Arabic, literally,
   "The God" — into the common English word "God." These choices may
   differ in more recent translations.

Interpretation of the Qur'an

   The Qur'an has sparked a huge body of commentary and explication.
   According to Allameh Tabatabaei, interpretation of Qur'an ( Tafsir)
   means "explaining the meanings of the Qur'anic verse, clarifying its
   import and finding out its significance."

   Tafsir is one of the earliest academic activities in Islam. The prophet
   was the first person who described the Ayats for Muslims, as is clear
   from the words of Allah:" A similar (favour have ye already received)
   in that We have sent among you a Messenger of your own, rehearsing to
   you Our Signs, and sanctifying you, and instructing you in
   Scripture[Qurán] and Wisdom, and in new knowledge 2:151."

   The first exegetes were a few Companions of the Prophet, like Abdullah
   ibn Abbas, Abdullah ibn Umar and Ubayy ibn Kab . Exegesis in those days
   was confined to the explanation of literary aspects of the verse, the
   background of its revelation and, occasionally, interpretation of one
   verse with the help of the other. If the verse was about a historical
   event or contained the realities of genesis or resurrection, etc., then
   sometimes a few traditions of the Prophet were narrated to make its
   meaning clear.

   Because Quran is spoken in the classical form of Arabic, many of the
   later converts to Islam, who happened to be mostly non-Arabs, did not
   always understand the Qur'an's Arabic, they did not catch allusions
   that were clear to early Arab Muslims and they were extremely concerned
   to reconcile apparent contradictions and conflicts in the Qur'an.
   Commentators erudite in Arabic explained the allusions, and perhaps
   most importantly, explained which Quranic verses had been revealed
   early in Muhammad's prophetic career, as being appropriate to the very
   earliest Muslim community, and which had been revealed later, canceling
   out or " abrogating" (nāsikh) the earlier text. Memories of the
   occasions of revelation ( asbāb al-nuzūl), the circumstances under
   which Muhammad had spoken as he did, were also collected, as they were
   believed to explain some apparent obscurities. It should be noted that
   not all Muslims believe that there are abrogations in the text of the
   Qur'an and some insist that there are no contradictions or unclear
   passages to explain.

Similarities between the Qur'an and the Bible

   The Qur'an retells stories of many of the people and events recounted
   in Jewish and Christian sacred books ( Tanakh, Bible) and devotional
   literature ( Apocrypha, Midrash), although it differs in many details.
   Adam, Enoch, Noah, Heber, Shelah, Abraham, Lot, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob,
   Joseph, Job, Jethro, David, Solomon, Elijah, Elisha, Jonah, Aaron,
   Moses, Zechariah, Jesus, and John the Baptist are mentioned in the
   Qur'an as prophets of God (see Prophets of Islam). Muslims believe the
   common elements or resemblances between the Bible and other Jewish and
   Christian writings and Islamic dispensations is due to the common
   divine source, and that the Christian or Jewish texts were authentic
   divine revelations given to prophets. According to Qur'an

     "It is He Who sent down to thee (step by step), in truth, the Book,
     confirming what went before it; and He sent down the Law (of Moses)
     and the Gospel (of Jesus) before this, as a guide to mankind, and He
     sent down the criterion (of judgment between right and wrong). 3:3 "

   Muslims claim that those texts were neglected or corrupted ( tahrif) by
   the Jews and Christians and have been replaced by God's final and
   perfect revelation, which is the Qur'an. However, many Jews and
   Christians believe that the historical biblical archaeological record
   refutes this assertion, because the Dead Sea Scrolls (the Tanakh and
   other Jewish writings which predate the origin of the Qur'an) have been
   fully translated, validating the authenticity of the Greek Septuagint.

The Qur'an and Islamic culture

   Based on tradition and a literal interpretation of sura 56:77-79: "That
   this is indeed a Qur'an Most Honourable, In a Book well-guarded, Which
   none shall touch but those who are clean.", many scholars opine that a
   Muslim perform wudu (ablution or a ritual cleansing with water) before
   touching a copy of the Qur'an, or mushaf. This view has been contended
   by other scholars on the fact that, according to Arabic linguistic
   rules, this verse eludes to a fact and does not comprise of an order.
   This is so because the verb equivalent of English 'touch' is used in
   past perfect and not imperative. The literal translation thus reads as
   "That (this) is indeed a noble Qur'an, In a Book kept hidden, Which
   none toucheth save the purified," (translated by Mohamed Marmaduke
   Pickthall). It is suggested based on this translation that performing
   ablution is not required.

   Qur'an desecration means insulting the Qur'an by defiling or
   dismembering it. Muslims must always treat the book with reverence, and
   are forbidden, for instance, to pulp, recycle, or simply discard
   worn-out copies of the text. Respect for the written text of the Qur'an
   is an important element of religious faith by many Muslims. They
   believe that intentionally insulting the Qur'an is a form of blasphemy.
   According to the laws of some Muslim-majority countries, blasphemy is
   punishable by lengthy imprisonment or even the death penalty.
     * See also: Qur'an desecration controversy of 2005

Criticism of the Qur'an

   Critics of Islam often point to the Qur'an to prove that it is not of
   divine origin and therefore conclude that Islam is false. The divine
   origin of the Qur'an and the morality of the Qur'an are hot topics of
   criticism in Islam.

   The main topics of criticism of the Qur'an are as follows:
     * The origins of the Qur'an: Muhammad, according to tradition,
       recited perfectly what the angel Gabriel revealed to him for his
       companions to write down and memorize; non-Muslims state that
       Muhammad had made it by himself.

     * Claim to divine origin: Muslims believe the Qur'an is the miracle
       and the sign of Muhammad's prophecy. The Qur'an calls itself "the
       best word" in Arabic and has invited others to compete and say
       something better or at least equal. Critics reject the idea that
       Qur'an is miraculously perfect and impossible to imitate.

     * The science of the Qur'an: Many critics of Islam describe the
       existence of scientific errors in the Qur'an, endeavoring to prove
       that the Qur'an is not compatible with contemporary scientific
       views, and therefore is not of divine origin.".

     * Satanic Verses: The Qur'an says that nor did Muhammad say anything
       from himself and neither did Satin's interfere. But some early
       Islamic histories recount how Satan fooled Muhammad into adding two
       lines to Sura 53 of the Qur'an, lines that implore followers to
       hope for intercession by three pagan goddesses. These histories
       then say that these 'Satanic Verses' were shortly afterward
       repudiated by Muhammad at the behest of the angel Gabriel. The
       authenticity of this narration is disputed. Fischer and Abedi state
       that the story is rejected by almost all Muslim exegete's. Ibn
       Kathir in his commentary points out the weakness of the various
       Isnad by which the story was transmitted, almost all of them
       mursal—i.e., without a companion of Muhammad in their chain. Some
       non-Muslim scholars, such as William Montgomery Watt, suppose it's
       true, while others (such as J. Burton) believe the story is a
       forgery.

     * Domestic behaviour: The domestic behaviour encouraged in the
       Qur'an, particularly the treatment of women in Islam, has been
       criticized regarding the ethics of the statements.

     * War and violence: Some critics believe that it is not only
       extremist Islam that preaches violence but Islam itself, a violence
       implicit in the Qur'anic text as jihad.

          In response to the criticism regarding jihad and the Qur'an's
          alleged promotion of violence, some Muslims argue that the real
          purpose of armed jihad is to remove injustice and aggression.

     * Severe punishments: The Qur'an advocates use of the death penalty
       and other punishments which some non-Muslims find cruel and unusual
       for Apostasy, homosexuality, adultery, and theft

     * Slavery: A specific type of slavery is a permitted institution
       according to the Qur'an under definite rules.

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