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Ramayana

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   The Rāmāyaṇa ( Devanāgarī: रामायण) is an ancient Sanskrit epic
   attributed to the poet Valmiki and is an important part of the Hindu
   canon ( smṛti). The name Rāmāyaṇa is a tatpurusha compound of Rāma and
   ayana "going, advancing", translating to "the travels of Rāma". The
   Rāmāyaṇa consists of 24,000 verses in seven cantos (kāṇḍas) and tells
   the story of a prince, Rama of Ayodhya, whose wife Sita is abducted by
   the demon ( Rākshasa) king of Lanka, Rāvana. In its current form, the
   Valmiki Ramayana is dated variously from 500 BC to 100 BC, or about
   co-eval to early versions of the Mahabhārata. As with most traditional
   epics, since it has gone through a long process of interpolations and
   redactions, it is impossible to date it accurately. The Rāmāyana had an
   important influence on later Sanskrit poetry, primarily through its
   establishment of the Sloka meter. But, like its epic cousin
   Mahābhārata, the Rāmāyana is not just an ordinary story. It contains
   the teachings of ancient Hindu sages and presents them through allegory
   in narrative and the interspersion of the philosophical and the
   devotional. The characters of Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Bharata, Hanumān
   and Rāvana (the villain of the piece) are all fundamental to the
   cultural consciousness of India.

   One of the most important literary works on ancient India, the Ramayana
   has had a profound impact on art and culture in the Indian Subcontinent
   and Southeast Asia. The story of Rama also inspired a large amount of
   later-day literature in various languages, notable among which are the
   works of the sixteenth century Hindi poet Tulsidas and the Tamil poet
   Kambar of the 13th century.

   The Ramayana is not just a Hindu religious tale. Starting from the 8th
   century, the colonisation of Southeast Asia by Indians began. Several
   large empires like the Khmers, the Majapahits, the Sailendras, the
   Champas and Sri Vijaya were established. Because of this, the Ramayana
   became popular in Southeast Asia and manifested itself in text, temple
   architecture and performance, particularly in Indonesia ( Java,
   Sumatra, Bali and Borneo), Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar,
   Philippines and Vietnam.

Structure of Valmiki Ramayana

   Valmiki's Ramayana, the oldest and most widely read version of Ramayana
   is the basis of all the various version of Ramayana that are prevalent
   in the various cultures. The text survives in numerous complete and
   partial manuscripts, the oldest surviving of which is dated from the
   eleventh century AD. The current text of Valmiki Ramayana has come down
   to us in two regional versions from the north and the south of India.
   Valmiki Ramayana has been traditionally divided into seven books,
   dealing with the life of Rama from his birth to his death.
    1. Bala Kanda – Book of the young Rama which details the miraculous
       birth of Rama, his early life in Ayodhya, his slaying of the demons
       of the forest at the request of Vishvamitra and his wedding with
       Sita.
    2. Ayodhya Kanda – Book of Ayodhya in which Dasharatha comes to grief
       over his promise to Kaikeyi and the start of Rama's exile.
    3. Aranya Kanda – Book of the Forest which describes Rama's life in
       the forest and the abduction of Sita by Ravana.
    4. Kishkindya Kanda – Book of Kishkinda, the Vanara kingdom in which
       Rama befriends Sugriva and the Vanara army and begins the search
       for Sita.
    5. Sundara Kanda – Book of Sundara ( Hanuman) in which Hanuman travels
       to Lanka and finds Sita imprisoned there and brings back the good
       news to Rama.
    6. Yuddha Kanda – Book of the War, which narrates the Rama-Ravana war
       and the return of the successful Rama to Ayodhya and his
       coronation.
    7. Uttara Kanda – Epilogue, which details the life of Rama and Sita
       after their return to Ayodhya, Sita's banishment and how Sita and
       Rama pass on to the next world.

   There have been speculations on whether the first and the last chapters
   of Valmiki's Ramayana were indeed written by the original author. Many
   experts are of the opinion that they are integral part of the book in
   spite of the many differences in style and some contradictions in
   content between these two chapters and the rest of the book. These two
   chapters contain most of the mythological interpolations found in the
   Ramayana, such as the miraculous birth of Rama and his divine nature as
   well as the numerous legends surrounding Ravana.

Main characters

   Sculpture of Hanuman carrying the Dronagiri mountain, sculpted in Terra
   cotta
   Enlarge
   Sculpture of Hanuman carrying the Dronagiri mountain, sculpted in Terra
   cotta
     * Rama is the hero of this epic tale. He is portrayed as an
       incarnation of the god Vishnu. He is the eldest and the favorite
       son of the King of Ayodhya, Dasharatha. He is a popular prince
       loved by one and all. He is the epitome of virtue. Dasaratha,
       forced by one of his wives Kaikeyi commands Rama to relinquish his
       right to the throne for fourteen years and go into exile by his
       father. While in exile, Rama kills the demon king Ravana.
     * Sita is the wife of Rama and the daughter of king Janaka. Sita is
       the epitome of womanly purity and virtue. She follows her husband
       into exile and there gets abducted by Ravana. She is imprisoned in
       the island of Lanka by Ravana. Rama rescues her by defeating the
       demon king Ravana.
     * Hanuman is a vanara belonging to the kingdom of Kishkinda. He
       worships Rama and helps find Sita by going to the kingdom of Lanka
       crossing the great ocean.
     * Lakshmana, the younger brother of Rama, chose to go into exile with
       him. He spends his time protecting Sita and Rama. He is deceived by
       Ravana and Maricha into believing that Rama was in trouble while
       Sita gets abducted.
     * Ravana, a rakshasa, is the king of Lanka. He received a boon from
       Brahma that he will not be killed by either gods, demons or by
       spirits, after performing a severe penance for ten thousand years.
       He was also the most intelligent and erudite living being of his
       time. He has ten heads and twenty arms. After getting his reward
       from Brahma, Ravana begins to lay waste the earth and disturbs the
       deeds of good Brahmins. Rama is born a human to defeat him, thus
       overcoming the boon given by Brahma.
     * Dasharatha is the king of Ayodhya and the father of Rama. He has
       three queens, Kousalya, Sumitra and Kaikeyi, and three other sons,
       Bharata, Lakshmana and Shatrughna. Kaikeyi, Dasharatha's favourite
       queen forces him to make his son Bharata heir apparent and send
       Rama into exile. Dashatara dies heartbroken after Rama goes into
       exile.
     * Bharata is the second son of Dasharata. When he learns that his
       mother Kaikeyi had forced Rama into exile and caused Dasharata to
       die broken hearted, he storms out of the palace and goes in search
       of Rama. When Rama refuses to break his exile to return to the
       capital to assume the throne, he requests and gets Rama's sandals
       and places them on the throne. Bharata then rules Ayodhya as a
       representative of Rama.
     * Vishvamitra is the sage who takes Rama into the forest at the
       behest of defeating the demons destroying his Vedic sacrifices. On
       the way back he takes Rama into Mithila where Rama sees and falls
       in love with Sita.

Synopsis

   Rama, the hero of Ramayana, is a popular deity worshiped by Hindus, the
   route of his wanderings being, each year, trodden by devout pilgrims.
   The poem is not a mere literary monument, it is a part of Hinduism, and
   is held in such reverence that the mere reading or hearing of it, or
   certain passages of it, is believed by the Hindus to free them from sin
   and grant every desire to the reader or hearer. According to Hindu
   tradition, Rama is an incarnation ( Avatar), of the god Vishnu, who is
   part of the Hindu Trinity. The main purpose of this incarnation is to
   demonstrate the righteous path ( dharma) for the life on earth.

Rama's youth

   Rama breaking the bow of Siva at Sita's Swayamvara in Mithila, by Raja
   Ravi Varma (1848-1906)
   Enlarge
   Rama breaking the bow of Siva at Sita's Swayamvara in Mithila, by Raja
   Ravi Varma (1848-1906)

   Brahma, creator of the universe, could not revoke a boon he gave the
   demon king Ravana, as a reward for his severe penances, that he should
   not be slain by gods, demons, or spirits. Having been then rewarded,
   Ravana began with the help of his evil supporters, the Rakshasas, to
   lay waste the earth and to do violence to the good, especially the
   Brahmin priests, disturbing their sacrifices. All the gods, watching
   this devastation, went to Brahma to find a way to deliver themselves
   and the earth of this evil. Brahma went to Vishnu and conveyed the
   anguish of the gods and requested that Vishnu incarnate on earth as a
   human to destroy Ravana, as Ravana had not asked for protection against
   humans or beasts in his wishes to Brahma.

   Meanwhile, the good king Dasharatha of Ayodhya, who had ruled over his
   kingdom of Kosala for a long time, was beginning to become anxious
   about his successor, for he had no sons to take over the kingdom after
   him. Taking advice from his ministers and priests Dasharatha organised
   a Putrakameshti Yagna, a sacrifice for progeny. Vishnu decided to be
   born as the eldest to Dasharatha and caused a divine being to emerge
   from the sacrificial fire. The divine being gave Dashratha a golden
   vessel filled with nectar and asked him to give it to his queens.
   Dasharatha divided it amongst his three queens, Kausalya, Sumitra and
   Kaikeyi. In due course they became pregnant and gave birth to four
   sons: Queen Kausalya gives birth to the eldest son, Rama. Bharata is
   born to Queen Kaikeyi, and twins, Lakshmana and Shatrughna, are born to
   Queen Sumitra.

   The boys grew up learning the scriptures and the art of bowmanship from
   the sage Vasishta. One day, the sage Vishwamitra visited the kingdom
   and asked King Dasaratha to send Rama to protect him from demons who
   had been disturbing his sacrifices. Although very reluctant, Dasharatha
   agreed to send Rama and Lakshmana with Vishwamitra. As the brothers
   fulfilled their duties, Vishwamitra was pleased with them and bestowed
   upon them various celestial weapons.

   Towards the end of their stay with Vishwamitra, Rama chanced to pass
   near the kingdom of Mithila and heard that its king, Janaka, had
   offered his peerless daughter, Sita, in marriage to the man who could
   bend the mighty bow of god Siva, which had been kept at Janaka's court.
   Rama at once determined to accomplish the feat, which had been tried in
   vain by so many suitors. When he presented himself at court Janaka was
   at once won by his youth and beauty. Five thousand men drew in the
   mighty bow, resting upon an eight-wheeled chariot. Rama, without any
   apparent effort, bent it until it broke and Janaka gladly gave him his
   beautiful daughter. After the splendid wedding ceremonies were over,
   the happy pair travelled back to Ayodhya.

Rama's exile

   King Dasaratha, began to feel weary of reigning, and decided to make
   Rama, his eldest son and heir-apparent, the co-regent (Yuvaraja). His
   happy people received the announcement of his intention with delight
   and the whole city was in the midst of the most splendid preparations
   for the ceremony. Dasaratha went to discuss the celebrations with his
   favourite wife Kaikeyi. However, Kaikeyi's jealousy was aroused by her
   evil maid Manthara, because the son of Kausalya and not her own son
   Bharata, at that time absent from the city, was to be made king. She
   fled to an ante-chamber where Dasaratha found her in tears..

   To Dasharatha's concerned queries, Kaikeyi recalled that, ages ago, the
   old king had granted her two boons. She now demanded the fulfilment of
   these before she would consent to smile upon him. Dasharatha agreed and
   Kaikeyi revealed her demands. She required him, first, to appoint her
   son Bharata as co-regent and, second, to exile Rama for fourteen years
   to the terrible forest of Dandaka. Dasharatha was heart-broken, but had
   to abide by his promise. Rama, the obedient son, immediately agreed to
   relinquish his claim to the throne and started to leave for his exile.
   His faithful wife Sita and his loving brother Lakshmana also decided to
   go along with Rama. With Dasharatha lying grief-stricken, Rama left for
   the forest, followed by the lamenting people of Ayodhya. Soon after,
   king Dasharatha died, overcome by grief.

Sita's abduction

   Ravana cuts Jatayu's wings, by Raja Ravi Varma (1848-1906)
   Enlarge
   Ravana cuts Jatayu's wings, by Raja Ravi Varma (1848-1906)

   Rama, Sita and Lakshmana left behind Ayodhya and its people, crossed
   the river Ganges and went into the forest. They found an idyllic place
   called Chitrakuta to establish their hermitage. No more beautiful place
   could be imagined. Flowers of every kind, delicious fruits, and on
   every side the most pleasing prospects, together with perfect love, is
   stated to have made their hermitage a paradise on earth. In the forest,
   Rama befriended the old vulture-king, Jatayu.

   Meanwhile, Bharata returned to Ayodhya and, being also devoted to Rama,
   became furious with Kaikeyi for her role in exiling Rama and for the
   death of his father. Determined to bring back Rama, he headed for the
   forest. When he found Rama and pleaded with him to return and assume
   the throne, Rama politely refused, saying that he was duty-bound to see
   that his father's promise was fulfilled. Reluctantly Bharata agreed to
   return to the kingdom, requesting that Rama give to him his sandals.
   Back in Ayodhya, Baratha placed Rama's sandals on the throne of
   Ayodhya, and ruled as Rama's proxy from a village called Nandigrama
   near Ayodhya, awaiting his return. He also vowed to end his own life if
   Rama failed to return after fourteen years.

   One day, the rakshasi Surpanakha, a sister of the demon king Ravana,
   chanced upon Rama's hermitage and saw the handsome Rama and became
   enamored. Taking the form of a beautiful young girl, she tried to
   seduce Rama. Rama, ever faithful to his wife Sita, did not respond and
   asked her to approach Lakshmana. Lakshmana too refused, stating his
   duty towards his brother and his sister-in-law while in exile. An
   infuriated Surpanakha blamed Sita for the men scorning her charged at
   her in her original demonic form. However, Lakshmana saved Sita by
   severing Surpanakha's nose and ears. Surpanakha flew back to Ravana
   complaining about the young exiles. Ravana, after hearing of the
   beautiful Sita from Surpanakha, resolved to kill Rama in revenge and
   take Sita for himself. He enlisted the aid of the demon Maricha.
   Maricha turned himself into a golden deer that Sita wanted for herself.
   She asked Rama to get it for her, but after Rama left to find it,
   Maricha began screaming to trick Lakshmana. Lakshmana, convinced Rama
   was in danger, resolved to go out and find his brother. Before leaving
   Sita alone in the hut, Lakshmana drew a circle in the dirt saying that
   Sita would be safe as long as she stayed in the circle. Ravana
   approached the hermitage in the guise of an old man and asked Sita to
   give him some food. Initially hesitant to step out of Lakshmana's
   circle, Sita finally stepped out to give the old man some food. At this
   moment Ravana grabbed Sita and fled in his airborne vehicle, ( Pushpaka
   Vimana). Jatayu, seeing them fly, attempted to save Sita, but Ravana
   engaged Jatayu in combat and chopped off the vulture's wings. On
   returning to the hermitage, Rama and Lakshmana found it empty and
   anxiously began a search. Through Jatayu, whom they found lying
   mortally wounded, Rama and Lakshmana learnt of Sita's fate.

Vanara kingdom

   Continuing their search, they encountered the vanara king of
   Kishkindha, Sugriva, and Hanuman, one of his generals, among whom Sita
   had dropped from the chariot her scarf and some ornaments. Sugriva had
   been deposed from his kingdom by his brother, Vali, who had also taken
   his wife Roma from him. Rama agreed to defeat Vali if Sugriva would
   assist in the search for Sita. The agreement made, Sugriva challenged
   Vali to a duel. While the duel was progressing, Rama shot from his bow
   and killed Vali. Sugriva regained his kingdom and his wife.

   Sugriva and Rama sent the vanara soldiers in various directions in
   search of Sita. However, their efforts didn't bear fruit until they met
   another ancient vulture, Sampati, who was the brother of the slain
   Jatayu. Sampati was earthbound and deformed - his wings were burnt when
   he flew too close to the Sun (a story that can be considered to be
   similar to that of Icarus's). His brother, being hardier, had saved him
   from falling to his death. While Jatayu was the physically stronger of
   the two, Sampati possessed a compensating gift of vision. Sampati's
   vision was incredibly powerful, spanning several hundred yojanas and
   enabling him to see farther than anyone else. On hearing of Ravana's
   killing his brother, he readily agreed to help the vanaras. He was soon
   able to spot Sita in the southern direction. He could see her
   imprisoned in a garden of Ashoka trees on the island of Lanka, beyond
   the southern ocean.

Hanuman in Lanka

   Sugriva dispatched his army to the south with his nephew Angada at the
   head. Hanuman went with Angada as his general. When they reached deep
   south, they found a great ocean stretching between them and land of
   Lanka. They could find no means by which to cross the ocean. Commanding
   his soldiers to remain where they were, Hanuman expanded his body to
   enormous proportions, leaped the vast expanse of water, and alighted
   upon a mountain Trikuta from which he could look down upon Lanka.
   Perceiving the city to be closely guarded, he assumed the form of a
   cat, and thus, unsuspected, crept through the barriers and examined the
   city. He found Ravana in his apartments, surrounded by beautiful women,
   but Sita was not among them. Continuing his search, he at last
   discovered her, her beauty dimmed by grief, seated under a tree in a
   beautiful asoka grove, guarded by hideous rakshasas with the faces of
   buffaloes, dogs, and swine.

   Assuming the form of a tiny monkey, Hanuman crept down the tree, and
   giving her the ring of Rama, took one from her. He offered to carry her
   away with him, but Sita declared that Rama must himself come to her
   rescue, and as proof of finding her Sita gave Hanuman a priceless jewel
   to take back to Rama. While they were talking together, Ravana
   appeared, and, after fruitless wooing, announced that if Sita did not
   yield herself to him in two months he would have her guards "mince her
   limbs with steel" for his morning repast.

   In his rage, Hanuman destroyed a mango grove and was captured by the
   rakshasa guards, and brought before Ravana. Hanuman proclaimed that he
   was a messenger of Rama, and demanded that Ravana restore Sita to Rama
   or fall victim to Rama's wrath. Furious at hearing Hanuman's words,
   Ravana ordered Hanuman's death.

   Vibhishana, Ravana's righteous brother, intervened and counseled Ravana
   to follow the scriptures, reminding that it was improper to execute a
   messenger, and instead told him to exact the appropriate punishment for
   Hanuman's crime. Ravana accepted and ordered his rakshasas to set fire
   to Hanuman's tail. As soon as this was done, Hanuman made himself very
   small, slipped from his bonds, and, jumping upon the roofs, spread a
   conflagration through the city of Lanka. He leaped back to the
   mainland, conveyed the news of Sita's captivity to Rama and Sugriva,
   and was soon engaged in active preparations for the campaign.

Battle of Lanka

   Image:Prince Rama preparing to lay a huge attack to Lanka.jpg
   Rama preparing to lay siege to Lanka - from the collection of the
   Smithsonian Institute

   Rama decided that as long as the ocean was not bridged, it was
   impossible for any one but Hanuman to cross it. Rama meditated for
   three days without food or water, but in vain. In his anger at being so
   ignored, Rama turned his weapons against the ocean, until from the
   terrified waves arose Varuna, the god of the ocean, who promised him
   that if Nila and Nala from his army built a bridge, the waves should
   support the materials as firmly as though it were built on land.

   Terror reigned in Lanka at the news of the approach of Rama. Vibishana,
   Ravana's brother, deserted to Rama, because of the demon's rage when he
   advised him to make peace with Rama. Fiercely fought battles ensued, in
   which even the gods took part--Vishnu and Indra taking sides with Rama,
   and the evil spirits fighting with Ravana.

   After the war had been fought for some time, with varying results, and
   a great number of troops on both sides were killed, it was decided to
   determine the victor by single combat between Ravana and Rama. Even the
   gods were terrified at the fierceness of the conflict. At each shot
   Rama's mighty bow cut off a head of Ravana, which at once grew back,
   and the hero was in despair until Vibhishana told him to aim at
   Ravana's belly-button. Rama took careful aim.

   As Ravana fell by this weapon, flowers rained from heaven upon the
   happy victor, and his ears were ravished with celestial music. Touched
   by the grief of Ravana's widow, Mandodari, Rama ordered a splendid
   funeral for his foe, and then sought the conquered city.

   Sita was led forth, beaming with happiness at finding herself re-united
   to her husband; but her happiness was destined to be of short duration.
   Rama received her with coldness and with downcast eyes, saying that she
   could no longer be his wife, after having dwelt in the house of Ravana.
   Sita assured him of her innocence; but on his continuing to revile her,
   she ordered her funeral pyre to be built, since she would rather die by
   fire than live despised by Rama. The sympathy of all the bystanders was
   with Sita, but Rama saw her enter the flames without a tremor. Soon
   Agni, the god of fire, appeared, bearing the uninjured Sita in his
   arms. Her innocence thus publicly proved by the trial by fire, she was
   welcomed by Rama, whose treatment she tenderly forgave.

   The conquest won, Ravana defeated, and Sita restored, Rama returned in
   triumph to Ayodhya, and assumed the governance to the great delight of
   Bharata and the people of Ayondhya.

Sita banished

   Ayodhya was prosperous, the people were happy, and for a time all went
   well. It was not long, however, before whispers concerning Sita's long
   stay in Lanka spread through the city, and Rama came to hear the
   whisperings that a famine in the country was due to the guilt of Sita,
   who had suffered the caresses of Ravana while in captivity. Under the
   pressure from the citizens of Ayodhya, Rama banished her to the forest
   in which they had spent together the happy years of their exile.

   Without a murmur the unhappy Sita dragged herself to the forest, and,
   torn with grief of body and spirit, found the hermitage of Valmiki,
   where she gave birth to twin sons, Lava and Kush. Here she reared them,
   with the assistance of the hermit, who was their teacher, and under
   whose care they grew to manhood, handsome and strong.

   It chanced that about the time the youths were twenty years old, Rama
   began to think the gods were angered with him because he had killed
   Ravana, who was the son of a Brahman. Rama became determined to
   propitiate them by means of Ashvamedha, the great sacrifice, in which
   he caused a horse to be turned loose in the forest. When his men went
   to retake it, at the end of the year, they found it caught by two
   strong and beautiful youths who resisted all efforts to capture them.
   When his men couldn't retake the horse, Rama went to the forest in
   person, only to learn that the youths were his twin sons, Lava and
   Kush. Struck with remorse, Rama recalled the sufferings of his wife
   Sita, and on learning that she was at the hermitage of Valmiki,
   requested her to come with him.

   Sita had had time to recover from the love of her youth, and the
   prospect of life with Rama, she felt, was not altogether pleasant. She
   appealed to the earth, if she had never loved any man but Rama, if her
   truth and purity were known to the earth, let it open its bosom and
   take her to it. While the people stood trembling with horror, the earth
   opened, a gorgeous throne appeared, and the goddess of earth, seated
   upon it, took Sita beside her and conveyed her to the realms of eternal
   happiness, leaving the too late repentant people to wear out the
   remaining years in penitence.

Morals in Ramayana

   In his Ramayana, Valmiki expresses his view of human code of conduct
   through Rama: life is evanescent and the hedonistic approach to it is
   meaningless. However, that should not allow one to be indifferent to
   one's own rights and duties laid down in the ancient texts. He thus
   adopts the view that Dharma is what is proclaimed in the Veda and it
   should be followed for its own sake, not for what it brings you in pain
   or pleasure. Doing this will ensure one's welfare in this and the next
   world. In addition, Ramayana also reinforces the need for thinking
   about the consequences before making promises, for if you make them you
   must keep them, no matter how hard it may be.

   Sankshepa Ramayana, the brief narration of the entire Ramayana story by
   the sage Narada to Valmiki, forms the first sarga of Valmiki Ramayana.
   Narada lists the sixteen qualities of the ideal man and says that Rama
   was the complete man possessing all sixteen of these qualities.
   Although Rama himself declares "he is but a man, and never once claims
   to be divine, Rama is regarded by Hindus as one of the most important
   Avatar of the god Vishnu and as an ideal man.

   Valmiki portrays Rama not as a supernatural being, but as a human with
   all the attendant shortcomings, who encounters moral dilemmas but who
   overcomes these by simply adhering to the dharma--the righteous way.
   There are several instances narrated in Valmiki Ramayana which cast
   shadows on the pristine character of the hero and reinforce the theme
   of Ram struggling with mortal flaws and prejudices whilst struggling to
   follow the path of dharma. When Rama killed Vali ( See Vali_vadha for a
   detailed description of the event) to aid Sugriva regain his throne, it
   was not in fair combat, but while hiding behind a tree. When Sita was
   freed from Ravana's prison, Rama forced Sita to undergo an ordeal by
   fire to prove her purity and later as the king, Rama killed the Shudra
   Shambuka for performing a yogic penance not in keeping with his
   perceived low station in the society, though this latter incident is
   contested and may have crept in because of reinterpretation later on.

Concept of Dharma- Artha- Kama as per Ramayana

   The concepts of Dharma, Artha, Kama (and Moksha) are very old Hindu
   concepts. They are also known as Purusharthas. There are two prominent
   instances of it being defined in Ramayana. The first was when Bharat
   came to forest ( Chitrakoot) to meet Rama. Rama asked him whether he
   followed the rules of Dharma, Artha and Kaama properly. As per Rama it
   is defined as: Artha should not interfere with Dharma and vice versa.
   Similarly Kaama should not interfere with either Dharma or with Artha.
   Since Bharat was already knowledgeable he was to be reminded in very
   short words. But Dharma here means the duties and welfare one does for
   the society. Making wells, for example, is part of the dharma of a
   king. Arth means earnings. As it is further asked by Rama: The king has
   to see that there is enough income from taxes, the salaries of the
   employees are given at proper time and the tax should not be more than
   1/6 th (16.6 %) of a person's income. Kaama means pleasure here. One is
   allowed to have pleasure but without affecting the duties and earnings.
   The other instance of this concept comes in Yudha Kanda. Here
   Kumbhakarna, Ravana's brother, advises Ravana that one should use
   dharma in the morning, artha in the daytime and Kaama at night. He
   further says to Ravana that he (Ravana) is busy with Kaama all the time
   and this will take him to destruction. Interestingly one of Ravana's
   ministers Mahodara scolds Kubhakarna and to please his master says that
   a King can enjoy Kaama at any time.

Textual history

   Traditionally the epic belongs to the Treta Yuga, one of the four eons
   of Hindu chronology and is attributed to Valmiki, is an active
   participant in the story.

   It is composed in Epic Sanskrit, an early variant of Classical
   Sanskrit, so that in principle the core of the work may date to as
   early as the 5th century BCE. Since in its current form, after hundreds
   of years of transmission through recitations and in manuscript form,
   the epic has gone thorough numerous variations, it cannot be dated by
   linguistic analysis as a whole, and should be considered to have
   emerged over a long process, spanning from the 5th to 1st centuries BC.

   The core events told in the epic may well be of even greater age, the
   names of the characters, Rama, Sita, Dasharata, Janaka, Vasishta and
   Vishwamitra are all known in the Vedic literature such as the Brahmanas
   which are older than the Valmiki Ramayana. However, nowhere in the
   surviving Vedic poetry is a story similar to the Ramayana of Valmiki.
   Brahma, one of the main characters of Ramayana, and Vishnu, who
   according to Bala Kanda was incarnated as Rama are not Vedic deities,
   and come first into prominence with the epics themselves (and further
   during the 'Puranic' period of the later 1st millennium AD).

   There is general consensus that books two to six form the oldest
   portion of the epic while the first book Bala Kanda and the last the
   Uttara Kanda are later additions. The author or authors of Bala Kanda
   and Ayodhya Kanda appear to be familiar with the eastern Gangetic basin
   region of northern India and the Kosala and Magadha region during the
   period of the sixteen janapadas as the geographical and geopolitical
   data is in keeping with what is known about the region. However, when
   the story moves to the Aranya Kanda and beyond, it seems to turn
   abruptly into fantasy with its demon-slaying hero and fantastic
   creatures. The geography of central and south India is increasingly
   vaguely described. The knowledge of the location of the island of Sri
   Lanka also lacks detail. Basing his assumption on these features, the
   historian H.D. Sankalia has proposed a date of the 4th century BC for
   the composition of the text. A. L. Basham, however, is of the opinion
   that Rama may have been a minor chief who lived in the 8th or the 7th
   century BC.

   The events of the epic have also been dated to as early as 6000 BC by
   adherents of archaeoastronomy.

Variant versions

   The epic story of Ramayana was adopted by several cultures across Asia.
   Shown here is a Thai historic artwork depicting the battle which took
   place between Rama and Ravana.
   Enlarge
   The epic story of Ramayana was adopted by several cultures across Asia.
   Shown here is a Thai historic artwork depicting the battle which took
   place between Rama and Ravana.

   As in many oral epics, multiple versions of the Ramayana survive. In
   particular, the Ramayana related in north India differs in important
   respects from that preserved in South India and the rest of South-East
   Asia. There is an extensive tradition of oral storytelling based on the
   Ramayana in Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia, Laos, Vietnam, and Indonesia.

   In many Malay versions, Lakshmana is given greater importance than
   Rama, whose character is considered somewhat weak.

Within India

   There are diverse regional versions of the Ramayana written by various
   authors in India. Some of them differ significantly from each other.
   During the twelfth century AD, Kamban wrote Ramavatharam, known
   popularly as Kambaramayanam in Tamil. Although based on Valmiki
   Ramayana , Kambaramayanam is a true classic and unique in that Kamban
   has modified and reinterpreted many anecdotes in Valmiki Ramayana to
   suit the Tamil culture and his own ideas. Valmiki's Ramayana inspired
   the Sri Ramacharit Manas by Tulasidas in 1576 , an epic Awadhi (a
   dialect of Hindi) version with a slant more grounded in a different
   realm of Hindu literature, that of bhakti. It is an acknowledged
   masterpiece of India. It is popularly known as Tulsi-krita Ramayana.
   Gujarati poet Premanand wrote a version of Ramayana in the 17th
   century. Other versions include, a Bengali version by Krittivas in the
   14th century, in Oriya by Balarama Das in the 16th century, in Marathi
   by Sridhara in the 18th century, a Telugu version by Ranganatha in the
   15th century, a Kannada Ramayana by the 16th century poet Narahari,
   Kotha Ramayana in Assamese by the 14th century poet Madhava Kandali and
   Adhyathma Ramayanam Kilippattu, a Malayalam version by Thunchaththu
   Ezhuthachan in the 16th century.

   There is a sub-plot to Ramayana, prevalent in some parts of India
   relates to the adventures of Ahi Ravana and Mahi Ravana, the evil
   brother of Ravana, which enhances the role of Hanuman in the story.
   Hanuman rescues Rama and Lakshmana after they are kidnapped by the
   Ahi-mahi Ravana at the behest of Ravana and held prisoner in a
   subterranean cave, ready to be sacrificed to the goddess Kali.

   There have been reports of a version of the Ramayana story prevalent
   amongst the Mappilas of Kerala. This version, known as Mappila
   Ramayana, forms a part of the Mappillapattu. Mappillapattu is a genre
   of folk singing popular amonst the musims of Kerala and Lakshadweep.
   Being of Muslim origin, the hero of this story is a sultan. There are
   no major changes in the names of characters except for that of Rama's
   which is changed to `Laman'. The language and the imagery projected in
   the Mappilapattu are in accordance with the social fabric of the
   earlier Muslim community.

Southeast Asian versions

   Many other Asian cultures have adapted the Ramayana, resulting in other
   national epics. Aspects of the Chinese epic Journey to the West were
   inspired by the Ramayana, particularly the character Sun Wukong, who is
   believed to have been based on Hanuman. Kakawin Rāmâyaṇa is an old
   Javanese rendering of the Sanskrit Ramayana from the ninth century
   Indonesia. It is a faithful rendering of the Hindu epic with very
   little variation. Phra Lak Phra Lam is a Lao language version, whose
   title comes from Lakshmana and Rama. The story of Lakshmana and Rama is
   told as the previous life of the Buddha. In Hikayat Seri Rama of
   Malaysia, Dasharatha is the great-grandson of the Prophet Adam. Ravana
   receives boons from Allah instead of Brahma.

   Thailand's popular national epic Ramakien is derived from the Hindu
   epic. In Ramakien, Sita is the daughter of Ravana and Mandodari
   (T'os'akanth (=Dasakand) and Mont'o). Vibhisana (P'ip'ek), the
   astrologer brother of Ravana, predicts calamity from the horoscope of
   Sita. So Ravana has her thrown into the waters, who, later, is picked
   by Janaka (Janok). While the main story is identical to that of the
   Ramayana, many other aspects were transposed into a Thai context, such
   as the clothes, weapons, topography, and elements of nature, which are
   described as being Thai in style. It has an expanded role for Hanuman
   and he is portrayed as a lascivious character. Ramakien can be seen in
   an elaborate illustration at the Wat Phra Kaew temple in Bangkok.

   Other Southeast Asian adaptations include Ramakavaca of Bali, Maradia
   Lawana of the Philippines, the Reamker of Cambodia and the Yama Zatdaw
   of Myanmar.

Contemporary versions

   Contemporary versions of the Ramayana include Shri Ramayana Darshanam
   by Dr. K. V. Puttappa (Kuvempu) in Kannada and Ramayana Kalpavrikshamu
   by Viswanatha Satyanarayana in Telugu, both of which have been awarded
   the Jnanpith Award. The modern Indian author Ashok Banker has so far
   written a series of six English language novels based on the Ramayana.
   In September 2006, the first issue of Ramayan 3392 A.D. was published
   by Virgin Comics, featuring the Ramayana as reinvisioned by author
   Deepak Chopra and filmmaker Shekhar Kapur.

Ramayana landmarks

   Amongst the ruins of the Vijayanagara empire near Hampi, is a cave
   known as Sugriva's Cave. The cave is marked by coloured markings. The
   place holds its similarity to the descriptions of 'kishkinda' in
   Sundarakanda. Rama is said to have met Hanuman here. The place is also
   home to the famous Hazararama temple (Temple of a thousand Ramas).

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