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Roman Empire

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Ancient History,
Classical History and Mythology; British History 1500 and before (including
Roman Britain)

   CAPTION: Imperivm Romanvm
   Roman Empire

   Empire

   ←
      27 BC –  476 →
                   Flag →
   Motto: Senatus Populusque Romanus (SPQR)
   Location of Roman Empire
   The Roman Empire at its greatest extent, c. AD 117.
   Capital Rome
   ( 44 BC- 286)
   Milan
   ( 286- 402)
   Ravenna
   ( 402- 476)
   Nicomedia
   ( 286- 330)
   Constantinople
   (From 330)
   Language(s) Latin, later (in eastern empire) Greek
   Religion Roman paganism, later Christianity
   Government Monarchy
   Emperor
    - 27 BC-AD 14 Augustus
    - 475-476 Romulus Augustulus
   Consul
    - 27 BC-23 BC Augustus
    - 476 Basiliscus
   Legislature Roman Senate
   Historical era Classical antiquity
    - Caesar proclaimed perpetual dictator 27 BC
    -  Battle of Actium 2 September 31 BC
    - Octavian proclaimed Augustus 16 January 27 BC
    - Diocletian splits imperial administration between east and west 285
    - Constantine I declares Constantinople new imperial capital 330
    - Romulus Augustulus deposed by Odoacer 476
   Area
    -  25 BC 2,750,000 km^2
   1,061,781 sq mi
    -  50 4,200,000 km^2
   1,621,629 sq mi
    -  117 5,000,000 km^2
   1,930,511 sq mi
    -  390 4,400,000 km^2
   1,698,849 sq mi
   Population
    -  117 est. 88,000,000
        Density 17.6 /km²
   45.6 /sq mi
   Currency Solidus, Aureus, Denarius, Sestertius, As

   Roman Empire was the corresponding phase of that civilization
   characterized by an autocratic form of government. The Roman Empire was
   the superpower of the known Western world. It succeeded the 500
   year-old Roman Republic (510 BC - 1st century BC), which had been
   weakened by the conflict between Gaius Marius and Sulla and the civil
   war of Julius Caesar against Pompey and Marcus Brutus. Several dates
   are commonly proposed to mark the transition from Republic to Empire,
   including the date of Julius Caesar's appointment as perpetual dictator
   ( 44 BC), the victory of Caesar's heir Octavian at the Battle of Actium
   ( September 2, 31 BC), and the Roman Senate's granting to Octavian the
   honorific Augustus. ( January 16, 27 BC).

   The Latin term Imperium Romanum ("Roman Empire"), probably the
   best-known Latin expression where the word "imperium" denotes a
   territory, indicates the part of the world under Roman rule. From the
   time of Augustus to the Fall of the Western Empire, Rome dominated
   Western Eurasia and northern Africa, and comprised the majority of the
   region's population. Roman expansion began long before the state was
   changed into an Empire and reached its zenith under Emperor Trajan with
   the conquest of Dacia in AD 106. At this territorial peak, the Roman
   Empire controlled approximately 5 900 000 km² (2,300,000 sq.mi.) of
   land surface. Rome's influence upon the culture, law, technology, arts,
   language, religion, government, military, and architecture of Western
   civilization continues to this day.

   The end of the Roman Empire is traditionally, if not strictly
   accurately, placed at 4 September AD 476, when the last emperor of the
   Western Roman Empire, Romulus Augustus, was deposed and not replaced.
   The Greek-speaking Eastern Roman Empire, known today as the Byzantine
   Empire, preserved Greco-Roman legal and cultural traditions along with
   Hellenic and Orthodox Christian elements for another millennium, until
   its eventual collapse at the hands of the Ottoman Empire in 1453.

Evolution of Imperial Rome

   Traditionally, historians make a distinction between the Principate,
   the period following Augustus until the Crisis of the Third Century,
   and the Dominate, the period from Diocletian until the end of the
   Empire in the West. According to this distinction, during the
   Principate (from the Latin word princeps, meaning "first citizen") the
   realities of absolutism were formally concealed behind republican
   forms; while during the Dominate (from the word dominus, meaning
   "lord") imperial power was clearly shown, with golden crowns and ornate
   imperial ritual. More recently, historians have established that the
   situation was far more nuanced: certain historical forms continued
   until the Byzantine period, more than one thousand years after they
   were created, and displays of imperial majesty were common from the
   earliest days of the Empire.
   The extent of the Roman Republic and Roman Empire in 218 BC (dark red),
   133 BC (light red), 44 BC (orange), AD 14 (yellow), after AD 14
   (green), and maximum extension under Trajan 117 (light green).
   The extent of the Roman Republic and Roman Empire in 218 BC (dark red),
   133 BC (light red), 44 BC (orange), AD 14 (yellow), after AD 14
   (green), and maximum extension under Trajan 117 (light green).

First emperor

   No definitive answer exists regarding the identity of the first emperor
   of Rome. Under a purely technical point of view there is no clear first
   emperor, as the title itself was not an official post in the Roman
   constitutional system—rather, it was an amalgam of separate roles.

   Julius Caesar was a Dictator Perpetuus (" dictator for life"), which
   was a highly irregular form of dictator, an official position in the
   Roman republic. By law, the rule of a dictator would normally never
   exceed 6 months. The form created by Caesar was therefore quite
   contrary to the basic principles of the Roman Republic. Nevertheless,
   officially his authority rested upon this republican title, however
   irregular it might have been, and therefore he is considered a
   republican official. At the very least, he pretended to be one. Several
   senators, among them many former enemies who had been "graciously"
   pardoned by him, grew fearful that he would crown himself and try to
   establish a monarchy. Accordingly, they conspired to assassinate him,
   and on the Ides of March, on 15 March 44 BC, the life-long dictator
   perished under the blades of his assassins.

   Octavian, his grand-nephew, adopted son and political heir, learned
   from the mistake of his predecessor and never claimed the widely feared
   title dictator, disguising his power under republican forms much more
   carefully. All this was intended to foster the illusion of a
   restoration of the Republic. He received several titles like
   Augustus—the honorable one, and Princeps—translated as first citizen of
   the Roman republic or as first leader of the Roman Senate. The latter
   had been a title awarded for those who had served the state well;
   Pompey had held that title.

   In addition, Augustus (as he was named thereafter) was granted the
   right to wear the Civic Crown of laurel and oak. However, it must be
   noted that officially, none of these titles or the Civic Crown, granted
   Augustus any additional powers or authority; officially, he was simply
   a highly-honored Roman citizen, holding the consulship. Augustus also
   became Pontifex Maximus after the death of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus in
   13 BC. He also received several additional and extraordinary powers
   without claiming too many titles. In the end, he only needed the
   authority itself, not all the titles.

From the Republic to the Principate (31 BC–AD 14)

   Augustus.
   Augustus.

   The Battle of Actium resulted in the defeat and subsequent suicides of
   Mark Antony and Cleopatra. Octavian also had executed Cleopatra's young
   son and co-ruler, Caesarion. Caesarion may have been the (only) son of
   Julius Caesar. Therefore, by killing Caesarion, Octavian removed any
   possibility of a male rival emerging with closer blood ties to Julius
   Caesar. Octavian, now sole ruler of Rome, began a full-scale
   reformation of military, fiscal and political matters. These were
   intended to stabilize and pacify the Roman world and also to cement
   acceptance of the new regime.

   Upon Octavian's accession as ruler of the Roman world, the Roman Senate
   gave Octavian the name "Augustus." He had adopted the title
   "imperator," commander-in-chief, as his first name already earlier. It
   was a term that dated back to the days of the Republic and later
   evolved into "emperor."

   As adopted heir of Caesar, Augustus preferred to be called by this
   name. "Caesar" was a component of his family name. Julio-Claudian rule
   lasted for almost a century (from Julius Caesar in the mid 1st century
   BC to the emperor Nero in the mid 1st century AD). By the time of the
   Flavian Dynasty, and the reign of Vespasian, and that of his two sons,
   Titus and Domitian, the term "Caesar" had evolved, almost de facto,
   from a family name into a formal title. Derivatives of this title (such
   as czar and kaiser) endure to this day.

   The Roman legions, which had reached an unprecedented number (around
   fifty) because of the civil wars, were reduced to twenty-eight. Several
   legions, particularly those with members of doubtful loyalties, were
   simply disbanded. Other legions were amalgamated, a fact hinted by the
   title Gemina ("Twin"). Augustus also created nine special cohorts,
   ostensibly to maintain the peace in Italy, keeping at least three of
   them stationed at Rome. These cohorts became known as the Praetorian
   Guard.

   Octavian realized that autocracy and kingship were things that Romans
   had not experienced for centuries, and were wary of. Octavian did not
   want to be viewed as a tyrant and sought to retain the illusion of the
   constitutional republic. Even Rome's past dictators, such as the brutal
   Lucius Cornelius Sulla, had only ruled Rome for short spans of time,
   never more than a year or two (with the exception of Julius Caesar). In
   27 BC, Octavian officially tried to relinquish all his extraordinary
   powers to the Roman Senate. In a carefully staged way, the senators,
   who by this time were mostly his partisans, refused and begged him to
   keep them for the sake of the republic and the people of Rome.
   Reportedly, the suggestion of Octavian stepping down as consul led to
   rioting amongst the Plebeians in Rome. A compromise was reached between
   the Senate and Octavian, known as the First Settlement. This agreement
   gave Augustus legitimacy as an autocrat of the people, and ensured that
   he would not be considered a tyrant.

   Octavian split with the Senate the governorships of the provinces. The
   unruly provinces at the borders, where the vast majority of the legions
   were stationed, were administrated by imperial legates, chosen by the
   emperor himself. These provinces were classified as imperial provinces.
   The governors of the peaceful senatorial provinces were chosen by the
   Senate. These provinces were usually peaceful and only a single legion
   was stationed in the senatorial province of Africa.
   The Battle of Actium, by Lorenzo A. Castro, 1672.
   The Battle of Actium, by Lorenzo A. Castro, 1672.

   Before the Senate controlled the treasury, Augustus had mandated that
   the taxes of the Imperial provinces were destined to the Fiscus, which
   was administrated by persons chosen by, and answerable only to,
   Augustus. The revenue of the senatorial provinces continued to be sent
   to the Aerarium, under the supervision of the Senate. This effectively
   made Augustus richer than the Senate, and more than able to pay the
   salarium (" salary") of the legionaries, ensuring their continued
   loyalty. This was ensured by the Imperial province of Aegyptus, which
   was incredibly wealthy and also the most important grain supplier for
   the whole empire. Senators were forbidden to even visit this province,
   as it was largely considered the personal fiefdom of the emperor
   himself.

   Augustus renounced his consulship in 23 BC, but retained his consular
   imperium, leading to a second compromise between Augustus and the
   Senate known as the Second Settlement. Augustus was granted the
   authority of a tribune (tribunicia potestas), though not the title,
   which allowed him to convene the Senate and people at will and lay
   business before it, veto the actions of either the Assembly or the
   Senate, preside over elections, and gave him the right to speak first
   at any meeting. Also included in Augustus' tribunician authority were
   powers usually reserved for the Roman censor; these included the right
   to supervise public morals and scrutinize laws to ensure they were in
   the public interest, as well as the ability to hold a census and
   determine the membership of the Senate. No tribune of Rome ever had
   these powers, and there was no precedent within the Roman system for
   consolidating the powers of the tribune and the censor into a single
   position, nor was Augustus ever elected to the office of Censor.
   Whether censorial powers were granted to Augustus as part of his
   tribunician authority, or he simply assumed these responsibilities, is
   still a matter of debate.

   In addition to tribunician authority, Augustus was granted sole
   imperium within the city of Rome itself; all armed forces in the city,
   formerly under the control of the praefects, were now under the sole
   authority of Augustus. Additionally, Augustus was granted imperium
   proconsulare maius ("power over all proconsuls"), the right to
   interfere in any province and override the decisions of any governor.
   With maius imperium, Augustus was the only individual able to grant a
   triumph to a successful general as he was ostensibly the leader of the
   entire Roman army.
   The famous Augustus of Prima Porta.
   The famous Augustus of Prima Porta.

   All of these reforms were highly unusual in the eyes of Roman
   republican tradition, but the Senate was no longer composed of the
   republican patricians who had the courage to murder Caesar. Most of
   these senators had died in the Civil Wars, and the leaders of the
   conservative Republicans in the senate, such as Cato and Cicero, had
   long since died. Octavian had purged the Senate of any remaining
   suspect elements and planted the body with his own partisans. How free
   a hand the Senate had in all these transactions, and what backroom
   deals were made, remains unknown.

   Attempting to secure the borders of the empire upon the rivers Danube
   and Elbe, Octavian ordered the invasions of Illyria, Moesia, and
   Pannonia (south of the Danube), and Germania (west of the Elbe). At
   first everything went as planned, but then disaster struck. The
   Illyrian tribes revolted and had to be crushed, and three full legions
   under the command of Publius Quinctilius Varus were ambushed and
   destroyed at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in AD 9 by German
   barbarians under the leadership of Arminius. Being cautious, Augustus
   secured all territories west of Rhine and contented himself with
   retaliatory raids. The rivers Rhine and Danube became the permanent
   borders of the Roman empire in the North.

Julio-Claudian dynasty (14–69)

      rmn-military-header.png

      Roman Kingdom
      753 BC – 510 BC
      Roman Republic
      510 BC – 27 BC
      Roman Empire
      27 BC – AD 476

   Principate
   Western Empire

                 Dominate
                 Eastern Empire
   Ordinary Magistrates

   Consul
   Praetor
   Quaestor
   Promagistrate

                Aedile
                Tribune
                Censor
                Governor
   Extraordinary Magistrates

   Dictator
   Magister Equitum
   Consular tribune

                   Rex
                   Triumviri
                   Decemviri
   Titles and Honours
      Emperor

   Legatus
   Dux
   Officium
   Praefectus
   Vicarius
   Vigintisexviri
   Lictor

                 Magister Militum
                 Imperator
                 Princeps senatus
                 Pontifex Maximus
                 Augustus
                 Caesar
                 Tetrarch
   Politics and Law

   Roman Senate
   Cursus honorum
   Roman assemblies
   Collegiality

                   Roman law
                   Roman citizenship
                   Auctoritas
                   Imperium

   Augustus had three grandsons by his daughter Julia. None of the three
   lived long enough to succeed him. He therefore was succeeded by his
   stepson Tiberius, the son of his wife Livia from her first marriage.
   Augustus was a scion of the gens Julia (the Julian family), one of the
   most ancient patrician clans of Rome, while Tiberius was a scion of the
   gens Claudia, only slightly less ancient than the Julians. Their three
   immediate successors were all descended both from the gens Claudia,
   through Tiberius's brother Nero Claudius Drusus, and from gens Julia,
   either through Julia the Elder, Augustus' daughter from his first
   marriage ( Caligula and Nero), or through Augustus' sister Octavia
   Minor (Claudius). Historians thus refer to their dynasty as
   "Julio-Claudian".

Tiberius (14–37)

   The early years of Tiberius' reign were peaceful and relatively benign.
   Tiberius secured the overall power of Rome and enriched its treasury.
   However, Tiberius' reign soon became characterized by paranoia and
   slander. In 19, he was widely blamed for the death of his nephew, the
   popular Germanicus. In 23 his own son Drusus died. More and more,
   Tiberius retreated into himself. He began a series of treason trials
   and executions. He left power in the hands of the commander of the
   guard, Aelius Sejanus. Tiberius himself retired to live at his villa on
   the island of Capri in 26, leaving administration in the hands of
   Sejanus, who carried on the persecutions with relish. Sejanus also
   began to consolidate his own power; in 31 he was named co-consul with
   Tiberius and married Livilla, the emperor's niece. At this point he was
   "hoisted by his own petard": the emperor's paranoia, which he had so
   ably exploited for his own gain, was turned against him. Sejanus was
   put to death, along with many of his associates, the same year. The
   persecutions continued until Tiberius' death in 37.

Caligula (37–41)

   At the time of Tiberius' death most of the people who might have
   succeeded him had been brutally murdered. The logical successor (and
   Tiberius' own choice) was his grandnephew, Germanicus' son Gaius
   (better known as Caligula or "little boots"). Caligula started out
   well, by putting an end to the persecutions and burning his uncle's
   records. Unfortunately, he quickly lapsed into illness. The Caligula
   that emerged in late 37 demonstrated features of mental instability
   that led modern commentators to diagnose him with such illnesses as
   encephalitis, which can cause mental derangement, hyperthyroidism, or
   even a nervous breakdown (perhaps brought on by the stress of his
   position). Whatever the cause, there was an obvious shift in his reign
   from this point on, leading his biographers to think he was insane.

   Suetonius reported a rumour that Caligula planned to appoint his
   favorite horse Incitatus to the Roman Senate. He ordered his soldiers
   to invade Britain to fight the Sea God Neptune, but changed his mind at
   the last minute and had them pick sea shells on the northern end of
   France instead. It is believed he carried on incestuous relations with
   his sisters. He ordered a statue of himself to be erected in the Temple
   at Jerusalem, which would have undoubtedly led to revolt had he not
   been dissuaded from this plan by his friend king Herod. He ordered
   people to be secretly killed, and then called them to his palace. When
   they did not appear, he would jokingly remark that they must have
   committed suicide. In 41, Caligula was assassinated by the commander of
   the guard Cassius Chaerea. The only member of the imperial family left
   to take charge was his uncle, Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus.

Claudius (41–54)

   Claudius had long been considered a weakling and a fool by the rest of
   his family. He was, however, neither paranoid like his uncle Tiberius,
   nor insane like his nephew Caligula, and was therefore able to
   administer the empire with reasonable ability. He improved the
   bureaucracy and streamlined the citizenship and senatorial rolls. He
   also proceeded with the conquest and colonization of Britain (in 43),
   and incorporated more Eastern provinces into the empire. He ordered the
   construction of a winter port for Rome, at Ostia, thereby providing a
   place for grain from other parts of the Empire to be brought in
   inclement weather.

   In his own family life, Claudius was less successful. His wife
   Messalina cuckolded him; when he found out, he had her executed and
   married his niece, Agrippina the Younger. She, along with several of
   his freedmen, held an inordinate amount of power over him, and although
   there are conflicting accounts about his death, she may very well have
   poisoned him in 54. Claudius was deified later that year. The death of
   Claudius paved the way for Agrippina's own son, the 17-year-old Lucius
   Domitius Nero.

Nero (54–68)

   Initially, Nero left the rule of Rome to his mother and his tutors,
   particularly Lucius Annaeus Seneca, and the prefect of the Praetorian
   Guard Sextus Afranius Burrus. However, as he grew older, his paranoia
   and desire for power increased and he had his mother and tutors
   executed. During Nero's reign, there were a series of major riots and
   rebellions throughout the Empire: in Britannia, Armenia, Parthia, and
   Iudaea. Nero's inability to manage the rebellions and his basic
   incompetence became evident quickly and, in 68, even the Imperial guard
   renounced him. Nero is best remembered by the rumour that he played the
   lyre and sang during the Great Fire of Rome in 64, and hence "fiddled
   while Rome burned". Nero is also remembered for his immense rebuilding
   of Rome following the fires. Nero also began one of the first wholesale
   persecutions of Christians. Disgusted with him, the Roman Senate issued
   a decree, ordering Nero's execution. Nero committed suicide before the
   decree could be carried out. The civil wars which followed have led the
   year 69 to be known as the Year of the Four Emperors, in which Galba,
   Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian ruled in quick and violent succession,
   until Vespasian was able to solidify his power as emperor of Rome. Nero
   was so hated that, upon his death, the senate ordered the destruction
   of all public books and records that confirmed that Nero had ever
   existed. The senate had issued a similar measure upon the death of
   Caligula.

Rebellions

   In peacetime, it was relatively easy to rule the empire from its
   capital city, Rome. An eventual rebellion was expected and would happen
   from time to time: a general or a governor would gain the loyalty of
   his officers through a mixture of personal charisma, promises and
   simple bribes. A conquered tribe would rebel, or a conquered city would
   revolt. This would be a bad, but not a catastrophic event. The Roman
   legions were spread around the borders and the rebel leader would in
   normal circumstances have only one or two legions under his command.
   Loyal legions would be detached from other points of the empire and
   would eventually drown the rebellion in blood. This happened even more
   easily in cases of a small local native uprising as the rebels would
   normally have no great military experience. Unless the emperor was
   weak, incompetent, hated, and/or universally despised, these rebellions
   would be a local and isolated event.

   During real wartime however, which could develop from a rebellion or an
   uprising, like the massive Jewish rebellion, this was totally and
   dangerously different. In a full-blown military campaign, the legions
   under the command of the generals like Vespasian were of a much greater
   number. Therefore a paranoid or wise emperor would hold some members of
   the general's family as hostages, to make certain of the latter's
   loyalty. In effect, Nero held Domitian and Quintus Petillius Cerialis
   the governor of Ostia, who were respectively the younger son and the
   brother-in-law of Vespasian. In normal circumstances this would be
   quite enough. In fact, the rule of Nero ended with the revolt of the
   Praetorian Guard who had been bribed in the name of Galba. It became
   all too obvious that the Praetorian Guard was a sword of Damocles,
   whose loyalty was all too often bought and who became increasingly
   greedy. Following their example the legions at the borders would also
   increasingly participate in the civil wars. This was a dangerous
   development as this would weaken the whole Roman Army.

   The main enemy in the West were, arguably, the "barbarian tribes"
   beyond the Rhine and the Danube. Augustus had tried to conquer them,
   but ultimately failed and these "barbarians" were greatly feared. But
   by and large they were left in peace, in order to fight amongst
   themselves, and were simply too divided to pose a serious threat.
   The empire of Parthia, the arch-rival of Rome, at its greatest extent
   (c. 60 BC), superimposed over modern borders.
   The empire of Parthia, the arch-rival of Rome, at its greatest extent
   (c. 60 BC), superimposed over modern borders.

   In the East lay the empire of Parthia ( Persia). Crassus, a member of
   the First Triumvirate during the late republic, attempted an invasion
   in 53 BC, but was defeated by Persian forces led by Surena in the
   Battle of Carrhae. Any Parthian invasion was confronted and usually
   defeated, but the threat itself was ultimately impossible to destroy.
   Parthia would eventually become Rome's greatest rival and foremost
   enemy.

   In the case of a Roman civil war these two enemies would seize the
   opportunity to invade Roman territory in order to raid and plunder. The
   two respective military frontiers became a matter of major political
   importance because of the high number of legions stationed there. All
   too often the local generals would rebel, starting a new civil war. To
   control the western border from Rome was easy, as it was relatively
   close. To control both frontiers, at the same time, during wartime, was
   somewhat more difficult. If the emperor was near the border in the
   East, chances were high that an ambitious general would rebel in the
   West and vice-versa. It was no longer enough to be a good
   administrator; emperors were increasingly near the troops in order to
   control them and no single Emperor could be at the two frontiers at the
   same time. This problem would plague the ruling emperors time and time
   again and many future emperors would follow this path to power.

Year of the Four Emperors (68–69)

   The forced suicide of emperor Nero, in 68, was followed by a brief
   period of civil war (the first Roman civil war since Antony's death in
   31 BC) known as the year of the four emperors. Between June of 68 and
   December of 69, Rome witnessed the successive rise and fall of Galba,
   Otho and Vitellius until the final accession of Vespasian, first ruler
   of the Flavian dynasty. This period of civil war has become emblematic
   of the cyclic political disturbances in the history of the Roman
   Empire. The military and political anarchy created by this civil war
   had serious implications, such as the outbreak of the Batavian
   rebellion.

Flavian (69–96)

   The Flavians, although a relatively short-lived dynasty, helped restore
   stability to an empire on its knees. Although all three have been
   criticized, especially based on their more centralized style of rule,
   they issued reforms that created a stable enough empire to last well
   into the 3rd century. However, their background as a military dynasty
   led to further marginalization of the senate, and a conclusive move
   away from princeps, or first citizen, and toward imperator, or emperor.

Vespasian (69–79)

   Vespasian was a remarkably successful Roman general who had been given
   rule over much of the eastern part of the Roman Empire. He had
   supported the imperial claims of Galba, after whose death Vespasian
   became a major contender for the throne. Following the suicide of Otho,
   Vespasian was able to take control of Rome's winter grain supply in
   Egypt, placing him in a good position to defeat his remaining rival,
   Vitellius. On December 20, 69, some of Vespasian's partisans were able
   to occupy Rome. Vitellius was murdered by his own troops and, the next
   day, Vespasian, then sixty years old, was confirmed as Emperor by the
   Senate.

   Although Vespasian was considered an autocrat by the senate, he mostly
   continued the weakening of that body that had been going since the
   reign of Tiberius. This was typified by his dating his accession to
   power from July 1, when his troops proclaimed him emperor, instead of
   December 21, when the Senate confirmed his appointment. Another example
   was his assumption of the censorship in 73, giving him power over who
   made up the senate. He used that power to expel dissident senators. At
   the same time, he increased the number of senators from 200, at that
   low level due to the actions of Nero and the year of crisis that
   followed, to 1000; most of the new senators coming not from Rome but
   from Italy and the urban centers within the western provinces.

   Vespasian was able to liberate Rome from the financial burdens placed
   upon it by Nero's excesses and the civil wars. To do this, he not only
   increased taxes, but created new forms of taxation. Also, through his
   power as censor, he was able to carefully examine the fiscal status of
   every city and province, many paying taxes based upon information and
   structures more than a century old. Through this sound fiscal policy,
   he was able to build up a surplus in the treasury and embark on public
   works projects. It was he who first commissioned the Amphitheatrum
   Flavium ( Colosseum); he also built a forum whose centerpiece was a
   temple to Peace. In addition, he allotted sizable subsidies to the
   arts, creating a chair of rhetoric at Rome.

   Vespasian was also an effective emperor for the provinces in his
   decades of office, having posts all across the empire, both east and
   west. In the west he gave considerable favoritism to Spain in which he
   granted Latin rights to over three hundred towns and cities, promoting
   a new era of urbanization throughout the western (formerly barbarian)
   provinces. Through the additions he made to the Senate he allowed
   greater influence of the provinces in the Senate, helping to promote
   unity in the empire. He also extended the borders of the empire on
   every front, most of which was done to help strengthen the frontier
   defenses, one of Vespasian's main goals. The crisis of 69 had wrought
   havoc on the army. One of the most marked problems had been the support
   lent by provincial legions to men who supposedly represented the best
   will of their province. This was mostly caused by the placement of
   native auxiliary units in the areas they were recruited in, a practice
   Vespasian stopped. He mixed auxiliary units with men from other areas
   of the empire or moved the units away from where they were recruited to
   help stop this. Also, to reduce further the chances of another military
   coup, he broke up the legions and, instead of placing them in singular
   concentrations, broke them up along the border. Perhaps the most
   important military reform he undertook was the extension of legion
   recruitment from exclusively Italy to Gaul and Spain, in line with the
   Romanization of those areas.

Titus (79–81)

   Titus, the eldest son of Vespasian, had been groomed to rule. He had
   served as an effective general under his father, helping to secure the
   east and eventually taking over the command of Roman armies in Syria
   and Iudaea, quelling the significant Jewish revolt going on at the
   time. He shared the consul for several years with his father and
   received the best tutelage. Although there was some trepidation when he
   took office because of his known dealings with some of the less
   respectable elements of Roman society, he quickly proved his merit,
   even recalling many exiled by his father as a show of good faith.

   However, his short reign was marked by disaster: in 79, Mount Vesuvius
   erupted in Pompeii, and in 80, a fire destroyed much of Rome. His
   generosity in rebuilding after these tragedies made him very popular.
   Titus was very proud of his work on the vast amphitheater begun by his
   father. He held the opening ceremonies in the still unfinished edifice
   during the year 80, celebrating with a lavish show that featured 100
   gladiators and lasted 100 days. Titus died in 81, at the age of 41 of
   what is presumed to be illness; it was rumored that his brother
   Domitian murdered him in order to become his successor, although these
   claims have little merit. Whatever the case, he was greatly mourned and
   missed.

Domitian (81–96)

   All of the Flavians had rather poor relations with the Senate, because
   of their autocratic rule, however Domitian was the only one who
   encountered significant problems. His continuous control as consul and
   censor throughout his rule; the former his father having shared in much
   the same way as his Julio-Claudian forerunners, the latter presenting
   difficulty even to obtain, were unheard of. In addition, he often
   appeared in full military regalia as an imperator, an affront to the
   idea of what the Principate-era emperor's power was based upon: the
   emperor as the princeps. His reputation in the Senate aside, he kept
   the people of Rome happy through various measures, including donations
   to every resident of Rome, wild spectacles in the newly finished
   Colosseum, and continuing the public works projects of his father and
   brother. He also apparently had the good fiscal sense of his father,
   because although he spent lavishly his successors came to power with a
   well-endowed treasury.

   However, towards the end of his reign Domitian became extremely
   paranoid, which probably had its initial roots in the treatment he
   received by his father: although given significant responsibility, he
   was never trusted with anything important without supervision. This
   flowered into the severe and perhaps pathological repercussions
   following the short-lived rebellion in 89 of Antonius Saturninus, a
   governor and commander in Germany. Domitian's paranoia led to a large
   number of arrests, executions, and seizure of property (which might
   help explain his ability to spend so lavishly). Eventually it got to
   the point where even his closest advisers and family members lived in
   fear, leading them to his murder in 96 orchestrated by his enemies in
   the Senate, Stephanus (the steward of the deceased Julia Flavia),
   members of the Praetorian Guard and empress Domitia Longina.

Antonine Dynasty (96–180)

   Roman Empire as its greatest extent with the conquests of Trajan
   Roman Empire as its greatest extent with the conquests of Trajan

   The next century came to be known as the period of the " Five Good
   Emperors", in which the succession was peaceful though not dynastic and
   the Empire was prosperous. The emperors of this period were Nerva
   (96–98), Trajan (98–117), Hadrian (117–138), Antoninus Pius (138–161)
   and Marcus Aurelius (161–180), each being adopted by his predecessor as
   his successor during the former's lifetime. While their respective
   choices of successor were based upon the merits of the individual men
   they selected, it has been argued that the real reason for the lasting
   success of the adoptive scheme of succession lay more with the fact
   that none but the last had a natural heir.

Nerva (96–98)

   After his accession, Nerva went to set a new tone: he released those
   imprisoned for treason, banned future prosecutions for treason,
   restored much confiscated property, and involved the Roman Senate in
   his rule. He probably did so as a means to remain relatively popular
   (and therefore alive), but this did not completely aid him. Support for
   Domitian in the army remained strong, and in October 97 the Praetorian
   Guard laid siege to the Imperial Palace on the Palatine Hill and took
   Nerva hostage. He was forced to submit to their demands, agreeing to
   hand over those responsible for Domitian's death and even giving a
   speech thanking the rebellious Praetorians. Nerva then adopted Trajan,
   a commander of the armies on the German frontier, as his successor
   shortly thereafter in order to bolster his own rule. Casperius
   Aelianus, the Guard Prefect responsible for the mutiny against Nerva,
   was later executed under Trajan.

Trajan (98–117)

   Eugène Delacroix. The Justice of Trajan (fragment).
   Eugène Delacroix. The Justice of Trajan (fragment).

   In 112, provoked by Parthia's decision to put an unacceptable king on
   the throne of Armenia, a kingdom over which the two great empires had
   shared hegemony since the time of Nero some fifty years earlier, Trajan
   marched first on Armenia. He deposed the king and annexed it to the
   Roman Empire. Then he turned south into Parthia itself, taking the
   cities of Babylon, Seleucia and finally the capital of Ctesiphon in
   116. He continued southward to the Persian Gulf, whence he declared
   Mesopotamia a new province of the empire and lamented that he was too
   old to follow in the steps of Alexander the Great. But he did not stop
   there. Later in 116, he captured the great city of Susa. He deposed the
   Parthian King Osroes I and put his own puppet ruler Parthamaspates on
   the throne. Never again would the Roman Empire advance so far to the
   east.

Hadrian (117–138)

   Despite his own excellence as a military administrator, Hadrian's reign
   was marked by a general lack of major military conflicts. He
   surrendered Trajan's conquests in Mesopotamia, considering them to be
   indefensible. There was almost a war with Parthia around 121, but the
   threat was averted when Hadrian succeeded in negotiating a peace.
   Hadrian's army crushed a massive Jewish uprising in Judea (132–135) led
   by Simon Bar Kokhba.

   Hadrian was the first emperor to extensively tour the provinces,
   donating money for local construction projects as he went. In Britain,
   he ordered the construction of a wall, the famous Hadrian's Wall as
   well as various other such defenses in Germany and Northern Africa. His
   domestic policy was one of relative peace and prosperity.

Antoninus Pius (138–161)

   Antoninus Pius
   Antoninus Pius

   Antoninus Pius 3d.jpg

   His reign was comparatively peaceful; there were several military
   disturbances throughout the Empire in his time, in Mauretania, Judaea,
   and amongst the Brigantes in Britain, but none of them are considered
   serious. The unrest in Britain is believed to have led to the
   construction of the Antonine Wall from the Firth of Forth to the Firth
   of Clyde, although it was soon abandoned.

Marcus Aurelius (161–180)

   Marcus Aurelius
   Marcus Aurelius

   Marcus Aurelius equestrian 3d.jpg

   Germanic tribes and other people launched many raids along the long
   north European border, particularly into Gaul and across the Danube —
   Germans, in turn, may have been under attack from more warlike tribes
   farther east. His campaigns against them are commemorated on the Column
   of Marcus Aurelius. In Asia, a revitalized Parthian Empire renewed its
   assault. Marcus Aurelius sent his joint emperor Verus to command the
   legions in the East to face it. He was authoritative enough to command
   the full loyalty of the troops, but already powerful enough that he had
   little incentive to overthrow Marcus. The plan succeeded — Verus
   remained loyal until his death on campaign in 169.

   The period of the "Five Good Emperors" was brought to an end by the
   reign of Commodus from 180 to 192. Commodus was the son of Marcus
   Aurelius, making him the first direct successor in a century, breaking
   the scheme of adoptive successors that had turned out so well. He was
   co-emperor with his father from 177. When he became sole emperor upon
   the death of his father in 180, it was at first seen as a hopeful sign
   by the people of the Roman Empire. Nevertheless, as generous and
   magnanimous as his father was, Commodus turned out to be just the
   opposite. In The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon,
   it is noted that Commodus at first ruled the empire well. However,
   after an assassination attempt, involving a conspiracy by certain
   members of his family, Commodus became paranoid and slipped into
   insanity. The Pax Romana, or "Roman Peace", ended with the reign of
   Commodus. One could argue that the assassination attempt began the long
   decline of the Roman Empire.

Severan Dynasty (193–235)

   Caracalla
   Caracalla

   Caracalla 3d.jpg

   The Severan Dynasty includes the increasingly troubled reigns of
   Septimius Severus (193–211), Caracalla (211–217), Macrinus (217–218),
   Elagabalus (218–222), and Alexander Severus (222–235). The founder of
   the dynasty, Lucius Septimius Severus, belonged to a leading native
   family of Leptis Magna in Africa who allied himself with a prominent
   Syrian family by his marriage to Julia Domna. Their provincial
   background and cosmopolitan alliance, eventually giving rise to
   imperial rulers of Syrian background, Elagabalus and Alexander Severus,
   testifies to the broad political franchise and economic development of
   the Roman empire that had been achieved under the Antonines. A
   generally successful ruler, Septimius Severus cultivated the army's
   support with substantial remuneration in return for total loyalty to
   the emperor and substituted equestrian officers for senators in key
   administrative positions. In this way, he successfully broadened the
   power base of the imperial administration throughout the empire, also
   by abolishing the regular standing jury courts of Republican times.

   Septimius Severus's son, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus — nicknamed
   Caracalla — removed all legal and political distinction between
   Italians and provincials, enacting the Constitutio Antoniniana in 212
   which extended full Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants of the
   empire. Caracalla was also responsible for erecting the famous Baths of
   Caracalla in Rome, their design serving as an architectural model for
   many subsequent monumental public buildings. Increasingly unstable and
   autocratic, Caracalla was assassinated by the praetorian prefect
   Macrinus in 217, who succeeded him briefly as the first emperor not of
   senatorial rank. The imperial court, however, was dominated by
   formidable women who arranged the succession of Elagabalus in 218, and
   Alexander Severus, the last of the dynasty, in 222. In the last phase
   of the Severan principate, the power of the Senate was somewhat revived
   and a number of fiscal reforms were enacted. Despite early successes
   against the Sassanian Empire in the East, Alexander Severus's
   increasing inability to control the army led eventually to its mutiny
   and his assassination in 235. The death of Alexander Severus ushered in
   a subsequent period of soldier-emperors and almost a half-century of
   civil war and strife.

Crisis of the Third Century (235–284)

   The Crisis of the Third Century is a commonly applied name for the
   crumbling and near collapse of the Roman Empire between 235 and 284. It
   is also called the period of the "military anarchy."

   After Augustus declared an end to the Civil Wars of the 1st century BC,
   the Empire had enjoyed a period of limited external invasion, internal
   peace and economic prosperity (the Pax Romana). In the 3rd century,
   however, the Empire underwent military, political and economic crises
   and began to collapse. There was constant barbarian invasion, civil
   war, and runaway hyperinflation. Part of the problem had its origins in
   the nature of the Augustan settlement. Augustus, intending to downplay
   his position, had not established rules for the succession of emperors.
   Already in the 1st and 2nd century disputes about the succession had
   led to short civil wars, but in the 3rd century these civil wars became
   a constant factor, as no single candidate succeeded in quickly
   overcoming his opponents or holding on to the Imperial position for
   very long. Between 235 and 284 no fewer than 25 different emperors
   ruled Rome (the "Soldier-Emperors"). All but two of these emperors were
   either murdered or killed in battle. The organisation of the Roman
   military, concentrated on the borders, could provide no remedy against
   foreign invasions once the invaders had broken through. A decline in
   citizens' participation in local administration forced the Emperors to
   step in, gradually increasing the central government's responsibility.

   This period ended with the accession of Diocletian. Diocletian, either
   by skill or sheer luck, solved many of the acute problems experienced
   during this crisis. However, the core problems would remain and cause
   the eventual destruction of the western empire. The transitions of this
   period mark the beginnings of Late Antiquity and the end of Classical
   Antiquity.

Tetrarchy (285–324) and Constantine I (324–337)

   The Tetrarchs, a porphyry sculpture sacked from a Byzantine palace in
   1204, Treasury of St Mark's, Venice
   The Tetrarchs, a porphyry sculpture sacked from a Byzantine palace in
   1204, Treasury of St Mark's, Venice

   Details in 3d.jpg

   The transition from a single united empire to the later divided Western
   and Eastern empires was a gradual transformation. In July 285,
   Diocletian defeated rival Emperor Carinus and briefly became sole
   emperor of the Roman Empire.

   Diocletian saw that the vast Roman Empire was ungovernable by a single
   emperor in the face of internal pressures and military threats on two
   fronts. He therefore split the Empire in half along a north-west axis
   just east of Italy, and created two equal Emperors to rule under the
   title of Augustus. Diocletian was Augustus of the eastern half, and
   gave his long-time friend Maximian the title of Augustus in the western
   half. In doing so, Diocletian created what would become the Western
   Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire. The western empire would
   collapse less than 200 years later, and the eastern empire would become
   the Byzantine Empire, centered in the Greek city of Byzantium, which
   would later be renamed Constantinople by the emperor Constantine I, and
   would survive another thousand years. Also, since Diocletian was a
   fervent pagan and was worried about the ever-increasing numbers of
   Christians in the Empire, he persecuted them with zeal unknown since
   the time of Nero; this was to be one of the greatest Christian
   persecutions in history.

   In 293 authority was further divided, as each Augustus took a junior
   Emperor called Caesar to aid him in administrative matters, and to
   provide a line of succession; Galerius became Caesar under Diocletian
   and Constantius Chlorus Caesar under Maximian. This constituted what is
   called the Tetrarchy (in Greek: the leadership of four) by modern
   scholars. After Rome had been plagued by bloody disputes about the
   supreme authority, this finally formalized a peaceful succession of the
   emperor: in each half the Caesar rose up to replace the Augustus and
   proclaimed a new Caesar. On May 1, 305, Diocletian and Maximian
   abdicated in favour of their Caesars. Galerius named the two new
   Caesars: his nephew Maximinus for himself and Flavius Valerius Severus
   for Constantius. The arrangement worked well under Diocletian and
   Maximian and shortly thereafter. The internal tensions within the Roman
   government were less acute than they had been. In The Decline and Fall
   of the Roman Empire, Edward Gibbon notes that this arrangement worked
   well because of the affinity the four rulers had for each other. Gibbon
   says that this arrangement has been compared to a "chorus of music."
   With the withdrawal of Diocletian and Maximian, this harmony
   disappeared.

   The Tetrarchy would effectively collapse with the death of Constantius
   Chlorus on July 25, 306. Constantius's troops in Eboracum immediately
   proclaimed his son Constantine an Augustus. In August 306, Galerius
   promoted Severus to the position of Augustus. A revolt in Rome
   supported another claimant to the same title: Maxentius, son of
   Maximian, who was proclaimed Augustus on October 28, 306. His election
   was supported by the Praetorian Guard. This left the Empire with five
   rulers: four Augusti (Galerius, Constantine, Severus and Maxentius) and
   a Caesar (Maximinus).

   The year 307 saw the return of Maximian to the role of Augustus
   alongside his son Maxentius, creating a total of six rulers of the
   Empire. Galerius and Severus campaigned against them in Italy. Severus
   was killed under command of Maxentius on September 16, 307. The two
   Augusti of Italy also managed to ally themselves with Constantine by
   having Constantine marry Fausta, the daughter of Maximian and sister of
   Maxentius. At the end of 307, the Empire had four Augusti (Maximian,
   Galerius, Constantine and Maxentius) and a sole Caesar.

After Constantine (337–395)

Sons of Constantine (337–361)

   A map of Rome in 350
   A map of Rome in 350

   The Empire was parted again among his three surviving sons. The Western
   Roman Empire was divided among the eldest son Constantine II and the
   youngest son Constans. The Eastern Roman Empire along with
   Constantinople were the share of middle son Constantius II.

   Constantine II was killed in conflict with his youngest brother in 340.
   Constans was himself killed in conflict with the army-proclaimed
   Augustus Magnentius on January 18, 350. Magnentius was at first opposed
   in the city of Rome by self-proclaimed Augustus Nepotianus, a paternal
   first cousin of Constans. Nepotianus was killed alongside his mother
   Eutropia. His other first cousin Constantia convinced Vetriano to
   proclaim himself Caesar in opposition to Magnentius. Vetriano served a
   brief term from March 1 to December 25, 350. He was then forced to
   abdicate by the legitimate Augustus Constantius. The usurper Magnentius
   would continue to rule the Western Roman Empire until 353 while in
   conflict with Constantius. His eventual defeat and suicide left
   Constantius as sole Emperor.

   Constantius's rule would however be opposed again in 360. He had named
   his paternal half-cousin and brother-in-law Julian as his Caesar of the
   Western Roman Empire in 355. During the following five years, Julian
   had a series of victories against invading Germanic tribes, including
   the Alamanni. This allowed him to secure the Rhine frontier. His
   victorious Gallic troops thus ceased campaigning. Constantius sent
   orders for the troops to be transferred to the east as reinforcements
   for his own currently unsuccessful campaign against Shapur II of
   Persia. This order led the Gallic troops to an insurrection. They
   proclaimed their commanding officer Julian to be an Augustus. Both
   Augusti were not ready to lead their troops to another Roman Civil War.
   Constantius's timely demise on November 3, 361 prevented this war from
   ever occurring.

Julian and Jovian (361–364)

   Julian would serve as the sole Emperor for two years. He had received
   his baptism as a Christian years before, but apparently no longer
   considered himself one. His reign would see the ending of restriction
   and persecution of paganism introduced by his uncle and father-in-law
   Constantine I and his cousins and brothers-in-law Constantine II,
   Constans and Constantius II. He instead placed similar restrictions and
   unofficial persecution of Christianity. His edict of toleration in 362
   ordered the reopening of pagan temples and the reinstitution of
   alienated temple properties, and, more problematically for the
   Christian Church, the recalling of previously exiled Christian bishops.
   Returning Orthodox and Arian bishops resumed their conflicts, thus
   further weakening the Church as a whole.

   Julian himself was not a traditional pagan. His personal beliefs were
   largely influenced by Neoplatonism and Theurgy; he reputedly believed
   he was the reincarnation of Alexander the Great. He produced works of
   philosophy arguing his beliefs. His brief renaissance of paganism
   would, however, end with his death. Julian eventually resumed the war
   against Shapur II of Persia. He received a mortal wound in battle and
   died on June 26, 363. According to Gibbon in The Decline and Fall of
   the Roman Empire, upon being mortally wounded by a dart, he was carried
   back to his camp. He gave a farewell speech, in which he refused to
   name a successor. He then proceeded to debate the philosophical nature
   of the soul with his generals. He then requested a glass of water, and
   shortly after drinking it, died. He was considered a hero by pagan
   sources of his time and a villain by Christian ones. Gibbon wrote quite
   favorably about Julian. Contemporary historians have treated him as a
   controversial figure.

   Julian died childless and with no designated successor. The officers of
   his army elected the rather obscure officer Jovian emperor. He is
   remembered for signing an unfavorable peace treaty with Persia, ceding
   terrorities won from the Persians, dating back to Trajan. He restored
   the privileges of Christianity. He is considered a Christian himself,
   though little is known of his beliefs. Jovian himself died on February
   17, 364.

Valentinian dynasty (364–392)

   The role of choosing a new Augustus fell again to army officers. On
   February 28, 364, Pannonian officer Valentinian I was elected Augustus
   in Nicaea, Bithynia. However, the army had been left leaderless twice
   in less than a year, and the officers demanded Valentinian choose a
   co-ruler. On March 28 Valentinian chose his own younger brother Valens
   and the two new Augusti parted the Empire in the pattern established by
   Diocletian: Valentinian would administer the Western Roman Empire,
   while Valens took control over the Eastern Roman Empire.

   Valens's election would soon be disputed. Procopius, a Cilician
   maternal cousin of Julian, had been considered a likely heir to his
   cousin but was never designated as such. He had been in hiding since
   the election of Jovian. In 365, while Valentinian was at Paris and then
   at Rheims to direct the operations of his generals against the
   Alamanni, Procopius managed to bribe two legions assigned to
   Constantinople and take control of the Eastern Roman capital. He was
   proclaimed Augustus on September 28 and soon extended his control to
   both Thrace and Bithynia. War between the two rival Eastern Roman
   Emperors continued until Procopius was defeated. Valens had him
   executed on May 27, 366.

   On August 4, 367, a third Augustus was proclaimed by the other two. His
   father Valentinian and uncle Valens chose the 8 year-old Gratian as a
   nominal co-ruler, obviously as a means to secure succession.

   In April 375 Valentinian I led his army in a campaign against the
   Quadi, a Germanic tribe which had invaded his native province of
   Pannonia. During an audience with an embassy from the Quadi at Brigetio
   on the Danube, a town now part of modern-day Komárom, Hungary,
   Valentinian suffered a burst blood vessel in the skull while angrily
   yelling at the people gathered. This injury resulted in his death on
   November 17, 375.

   Succession did not go as planned. Gratian was then a 16 year-old and
   arguably ready to act as Emperor, but the troops in Pannonia proclaimed
   his infant half-brother emperor under the title Valentinian II.

   Gratian acquiesced in their choice and administrated the Gallic part of
   the Western Roman Empire. Italy, Illyria and Africa were officially
   administrated by his brother and his step-mother Justina. However the
   division was merely nominal as the actual authority still rested with
   Gratian.

Battle of Adrianople (378)

   Barbarian invasions of the Roman Empire, showing the Battle of
   Adrianople.
   Barbarian invasions of the Roman Empire, showing the Battle of
   Adrianople.

   Meanwhile, the Eastern Roman Empire faced its own problems with
   Germanic tribes. The Thervingi, an East Germanic tribe, fled their
   former lands following an invasion by the Huns. Their leaders Alavivus
   and Fritigern led them to seek refuge from the Eastern Roman Empire.
   Valens indeed let them settle as foederati on the southern bank of the
   Danube in 376. However, the newcomers faced problems from allegedly
   corrupted provincial commanders and a series of hardships. Their
   dissatisfaction led them to revolt against their Roman hosts.

   For the following two years conflicts continued. Valens personally led
   a campaign against them in 378. Gratian provided his uncle with
   reinforcements from the Western Roman army. However this campaign
   proved disastrous for the Romans. The two armies approached each other
   near Adrianople. Valens was apparently overconfident of the numerical
   superiority of his own forces over the Goths. Some of his officers
   advised caution and to await to arrival of Gratian, others urged an
   immediate attack and eventually prevailed over Valens, who, eager to
   have all of the glory for himself, rushed into battle. On August 9,
   378, the Battle of Adrianople resulted in the crushing defeat of the
   Romans and the death of Valens. Contemporary historian Ammianus
   Marcellinus estimated that two thirds of the Roman army were lost in
   the battle. The last third managed to retreat.

   The battle had far reaching consequences. Veteran soldiers and valuable
   administrators were among the heavy casualties. There were few
   available replacements at the time, leaving the Empire with the
   problems of finding suitable leadership. The Roman army would also
   start facing recruiting problems. In the following century much of the
   Roman army would consist of Germanic mercenaries.

   For the moment however there was another concern. The death of Valens
   left Gratian and Valentinian II as the sole two Augusti. Gratian was
   now effectively responsible for the whole of the Empire. He sought
   however a replacement Augustus for the Eastern Roman Empire. His choice
   was Theodosius I, son of formerly distinguished general Count
   Theodosius. The elder Theodosius had been executed in early 375 for
   unclear reasons. The younger one was named Augustus of the Eastern
   Roman Empire on January 19, 379. His appointment would prove a deciding
   moment in the division of the Empire.

Disturbed peace in the West (383)

   Gratian governed the Western Roman Empire with energy and success for
   some years, but he gradually sank into indolence. He is considered to
   have become a figurehead while Frankish general Merobaudes and bishop
   Ambrose of Milan jointly acted as the power behind the throne. Gratian
   lost favour with factions of the Roman Senate by prohibiting
   traditional paganism at Rome and relinquishing his title of Pontifex
   Maximus. The senior Augustus also became unpopular with his own Roman
   troops because of his close association with so-called barbarians. He
   reportedly recruited Alans to his personal service and adopted the
   guise of a Scythian warrior for public appearances.

   Meanwhile Gratian, Valentinian II and Theodosius were joined by a
   fourth Augustus. Theodosius proclaimed his oldest son Arcadius an
   Augustus in January, 383 in an obvious attempt to secure succession.
   The boy was still only five or six years old and held no actual
   authority. Nevertheless he was recognized as a co-ruler by all three
   Augusti.

   The increasing unpopularity of Gratian would cause the four Augusti
   problems later that same year. Spanish Celt general Magnus Maximus,
   stationed in Roman Britain, was proclaimed Augustus by his troops in
   383 and rebelling against Gratian he invaded Gaul. Gratian fled from
   Lutetia (Paris) to Lugdunum (Lyon), where he was assassinated on August
   25, 383 at the age of twenty-five.

   Maximus was a firm believer of the Nicene Creed and introduced state
   persecution on charges of heresy, which brought him into conflict with
   Pope Siricius who argued that the Augustus had no authority over church
   matters. But he was an Emperor with popular support and his reputation
   survived in Romano-British tradition and gained him a place in the
   Mabinogion, compiled about a thousand years after his death.

   Following Gratian's death, Maximus had to deal with Valentinian II, at
   the time only 12 years old, as the senior Augustus. The first few years
   the Alps would serve as the borders between the respective territories
   of the two rival Western Roman Emperors. Maximus controlled Britain,
   Gaul, Hispania and Africa. He chose Augusta Treverorum ( Trier) as his
   capital.

   Maximus soon entered negotiations with Valentinian II and Theodosius,
   attempting to gain their official recognition. By 384, negotiations
   were unfruitful and Maximus tried to press the matter by settling
   succession as only a legitimate Emperor could do: proclaiming his own
   infant son Flavius Victor an Augustus. The end of the year found the
   Empire having five Augusti (Valentinian II, Theodosius I, Arcadius,
   Magnus Maximus and Flavius Victor) with relations between them yet to
   be determined.

   Theodosius was left a widower in 385, following the sudden death of
   Aelia Flaccilla, his Augusta. He was remarried, to the sister of
   Valentinean II, Galla, and the marriage secured closer relations
   between the two legitimate Augusti.

   In 386 Maximus and Victor finally received official recognition by
   Theodosius but not by Valentinian. In 387, Maximus apparently decided
   to rid himself of his Italian rival. He crossed the Alps into the
   valley of the Po and threatened Milan. Valentinian and his mother fled
   to Thessaloniki from where they sought the support of Theodosius.
   Theodosius indeed campaigned west in 388 and was victorious against
   Maximus. Maximus himself was captured and executed in Aquileia on July
   28, 388. Magister militum Arbogast was sent to Trier with orders to
   also kill Flavius Victor. Theodosius restored Valentinian to power and
   through his influence had him converted to Orthodox Catholicism.
   Theodosius continued supporting Valentinian and protecting him from a
   variety of usurpations.

Reunification under Theodosius (392–395)

   The division of the empire after the death of Theodosius I, c. 395
   superimposed on modern borders.      Western Roman Empire      Eastern
   Roman Empire
   The division of the empire after the death of Theodosius I, c. 395
   superimposed on modern borders.      Western Roman Empire      Eastern
   Roman Empire

   In 392 Valentinian was murdered in Vienne. Arbogast arranged for the
   appointment of Eugenius as emperor. However, Theodosius refused to
   recognise Eugenius as emperor and invaded the Western Empire, defeating
   and killing Arbogast and Eugenius at the Battle of the Frigidus. He now
   reunited the entire Roman Empire under his own rule.

   Theodosius had two sons and a daughter, Pulcheria, from his first wife,
   Aelia Flacilla. His daughter and wife died in 385. By his second wife,
   Galla, he had a daughter, Galla Placidia, the mother of Valentinian
   III, who would be Emperor of the West.

   Theodosius was the last Emperor who ruled over the whole Empire. After
   his death in 395 he gave the two halves of the Empire to his two sons
   Arcadius and Honorius; Arcadius became ruler in the East, with his
   capital in Constantinople, and Honorius became ruler in the west, with
   his capital in Milan and later Ravenna. Though the Roman state would
   continue to have two emperors, the Eastern Romans considered themselves
   Roman in full. Latin was used in official writings as much as, if not
   more than, Greek. The two halves were nominally, culturally and
   historically, if not politically, the same state.

Fall of the Roman Empire (395–476)

   After 395, the emperors in the Western Roman Empire were usually
   figureheads. For most of the time, the actual rulers were military
   strongmen who took the title of magister militum, of patrician or both
   - Stilicho from 395 to 408, Constantius from about 411 to 421, Aëtius
   from 433 to 454 and Ricimer from about 457 to 472.

The End of the Roman Empire

   In June 474, Julius Nepos became Western Emperor. In 475, the Magister
   militum, Orestes, revolted and made his son Romulus Augustus the Roman
   emperor. Nepos fled to the province of Dalmatia. Romulus, however, was
   not recognized by the Eastern Emperor Zeno and so was technically a
   usurper, Nepos still being the legal Western Emperor. Nevertheless,
   Romulus Augustus is often known as the last Western Roman Emperor.

   The year 476 is generally accepted as the end of the Western Roman
   Empire. That year, Orestes refused the request of Germanic mercenaries
   in his service for lands in Italy. The dissatisfied mercenaries,
   including the Heruli, revolted. The revolt was led by the Germanic
   chieftain Odoacer. Odoacer and his men captured and executed Orestes.
   Within weeks, Ravenna was captured and Romulus Augustus was deposed,
   the event that has been traditionally considered the fall of the Roman
   Empire, at least in the West.
   The Western and Eastern Roman Empires by 476
   The Western and Eastern Roman Empires by 476

   Odoacer then sent the Imperial Regalia back to the emperor Zeno, and
   the Roman Senate informed Zeno that he was now the Emperor of the whole
   empire. Zeno soon received two deputations. One was from Odoacer
   requesting that his control of Italy be formally recognized by the
   Empire, in which he would acknowledge Zeno's supremacy. The other
   deputation was from Nepos, asking for support to regain the throne.
   Zeno granted Odoacer the title Patrician.

   Zeno told Odoacer and the Roman Senate to take Nepos back; however,
   Nepos never returned from Dalmatia, even though Odoacer issued coins in
   his name. Upon Nepos' death in 480, Zeno claimed Dalmatia for the East;
   J. B. Bury considers this the real end of the Western Roman Empire.
   Odoacer attacked Dalmatia, and the ensuing war ended with Theodoric the
   Great, King of the Ostrogoths, conquering Italy under Zeno's authority.
   Map of Ostrogothic Kingdom
   Map of Ostrogothic Kingdom

   The next seven decades played out as aftermath. Theodoric was King of
   the Ostrogoths, but couched his claim to Italy in diplomatic terms as
   being the representative of the Emperor of the East. Consuls were
   appointed regularly through his reign: a formula for the consular
   appointment is provided in Cassiodorus's Book VI. The post of consul
   was last filled in the west by Theodoric's successor, Athalaric, until
   he died in 534. Ironically the Gothic War in Italy, which was meant as
   the reconquest of a lost province for the Emperor of the East and a
   re-establishment of the continuity of power, actually caused more
   damage and cut more ties of continuity with the Antique world than the
   attempts of Theodoric and his minister Cassiodorus to meld Roman and
   Gothic culture within a Roman form.

   The western empire though, was unable to support itself due to
   population concerns. As much as 80% of the population was estimated to
   live in the eastern realm. A plague killed off a large percentage of
   the population of the Western Roman Empire. In addition, the Western
   Empire lacked sufficient military resources to maintain order and to
   secure borders. It is estimated that the empire required over 3 million
   soldiers to meet its basic security needs. However, by AD300, they only
   had an estimated 500,000 troops, which meant that they could not
   control the territory the empire possessed. Therefore, they became
   increasingly vulnerable to attacks from the outside of the imperial
   borders. Finally, an economic crisis later hit the empire, which arose
   from the lack of plunder of outlying territories and of slaves from
   Roman conquests.

   In essence, the "fall" of the Roman Empire to a contemporary of that
   age depended a great deal on where they were and their status in the
   world. On the great villas of the Italian Campagna, the seasons rolled
   on without a hitch. The local overseer may have been representing an
   Ostrogoth, then a Lombard duke, then a Christian bishop, but the rhythm
   of life and the horizons of the imagined world remained the same. Even
   in the decayed cities of Italy consuls were still elected. In Auvergne,
   at Clermont, the Gallo-Roman poet and diplomat Sidonius Apollinaris,
   bishop of Clermont, realized that the local "fall of Rome" came in 475,
   with the fall of the city to the Visigoth Euric. In the north of Gaul,
   a Roman kingdom existed for some years and the Franks had their links
   to the Roman administration and military as well. In Hispania the last
   Arian Visigothic king Liuvigild considered himself the heir of Rome.
   Hispania Baetica was still essentially Roman when the Moors came in
   711, but in the northwest, the invasion of the Suevi broke the last
   frail links with Roman culture in 409. In Aquitania and Provence,
   cities like Arles were not abandoned, but Roman culture in Britain
   collapsed in waves of violence after the last legions evacuated: the
   final legionary probably left Britain in 409.

Byzantine Empire (395–1453)

   As the western part of the empire would decline during the 5th century,
   the richer eastern part would be spared much of the destruction, and in
   the 6th century the Eastern Empire under the emperor Justinian I
   reconquered the Italian peninsula from the Ostrogoths, North Africa
   from the Vandals (their kingdom collapsing in 533), southern Spain, and
   a narrow tract of the Illyrian coast. These gains were lost during
   subsequent reigns. Of the many accepted dates for the end of the Roman
   state, the latest is 610. This is when the Emperor Heraclius made
   sweeping reforms, forever changing the face of the empire. Greek was
   readopted as the language of government and Latin influence waned. By
   610, the eastern part of the Roman Empire had come under Greek
   influence and evolved into what modern historians now call the Middle
   Age Byzantine Empire, although the Empire was never called that way by
   its contemporaries (rather it was called Romania, Basileia Romaion or
   Pragmata Romaion). The Byzantines continued to call themselves Romans
   until their fall to Ottoman Turks in 1453. That year the eastern part
   of the Roman Empire was ultimately ended by the Fall of Constantinople.
   Even though Mehmed II, the conqueror of Constantinople, declared
   himself the Emperor of the Roman Empire (Caesar of Rome / Kayser-i
   Rum), Constantine XI, emperor of the Byzantine Empire during 1453, is
   considered the last Roman Emperor. The Greek ethnic self-descriptive
   name "Romans" survives to this day.

Legacy

   Several states claiming to be the Roman Empire's successor arose after
   the fall of the Western Empire. First it was the Byzantine Empire, its
   direct political heir. Then the Holy Roman Empire, an attempt to
   resurrect the Empire in the West, was established in 800 when Pope Leo
   III crowned Charlemagne as Roman Emperor on Christmas Day, though the
   empire and the imperial office did not become formalized for some
   decades. After the fall of Constantinople, the Russian Tsardom, as
   inheritor of the Byzantine Empire's Orthodox Christian tradition,
   counted itself the third Rome (with Constantinople being the second).
   And when the Ottomans, who based their state on the Byzantine model,
   took Constantinople in 1453, Mehmed II established his capital there
   and claimed to sit on the throne of the Roman Empire, and he even went
   so far as to launch an invasion of Italy with the purpose of
   "re-uniting the Empire", although Papal and Neapolitan armies stopped
   his march on Rome at Otranto in 1480. Constantinople was not officially
   renamed Istanbul until March 28, 1930.

   But excluding these states claiming its heritage, the Roman state
   lasted (in some form) from the founding of Rome in 753 BC to the fall
   in 1461 of the Empire of Trebizond (a successor state and fragment of
   the Byzantine Empire which escaped conquest by the Ottomans in 1453),
   for a total of 2214 years. The Roman impact on Western and Eastern
   civilizations lives on. In time most of the Roman achievements were
   duplicated by later civilizations. For example, the technology for
   cement was rediscovered 1755–1759 by John Smeaton.

   The Empire contributed many things to the world, such as the
   (more-or-less) modern calendar, the institutions of Christianity and
   aspects of modern neo-classicistic architecture. The extensive system
   of roads, which were constructed by the Roman Army, still last to this
   day. Because of this network of roads, the time necessary to travel
   between destinations in Europe did not decrease until the 19th century,
   after the invention of steam power.

   The Roman Empire also contributed its form of government, which
   influences various constitutions including those of most European
   countries, and that of the United States, whose framers remarked, in
   creating the Presidency, that they wanted to inaugurate an "Augustan
   Age." The modern world also inherited legal thinking from Roman law,
   codified in Late Antiquity. Governing a vast territory, the Romans
   developed the science of public administration to an extent never
   before conceived nor necessary, creating an extensive civil service and
   formalized methods of tax collection. The western world today derives
   its intellectual history from the Greeks, but it derives its methods of
   living, ruling and governing from those of the Romans.

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