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Rule of St Benedict

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: British History 1500 and
before (including Roman Britain)

   St. Benedict writing the rules, painting (1926) by Hermann Nigg
   (1849-1928)
   St. Benedict writing the rules, painting (1926) by Hermann Nigg
   (1849-1928)

   The Rule of St Benedict by Benedict of Nursia (fl. 6th century) is a
   book of precepts written for monks living in community under the
   authority of an abbot. Since about the 7th century it has been adopted
   with equal success by communities of women. During the 1500 years of
   its existence, it has become the leading guide in Western Christianity
   for monastic living in community, both in Catholicism and (since the
   time of the Reformation) in the Anglican and Protestant traditions.

   The spirit of St Benedict's Rule is summed up in the motto of the
   Benedictine Confederation: pax ("peace") and the traditional ora et
   labora ("pray and work").

   Compared to other precepts, the Rule provides a moderate path between
   individual zeal and formulaic institutionalism; because of this middle
   ground it has been widely popular. Benedict's concerns were the needs
   of monks in a community environment: namely, to establish due order; to
   foster an understanding of the relational nature of human beings; and
   to provide a spiritual father to support and strengthen the
   individual's ascetic effort and the spiritual growth that is required
   for the fulfillment of the human vocation, Divinization.

   The balance in St Benedict's Rule of prayer and work has been
   successfully guiding Benedictines for fifteen centuries; and he is
   therefore rightfully regarded as the founder of Western monasticism.
   There is, however, no evidence to suggest that Benedict intended to
   found a religious order. Not until the later Middle Ages is there
   mention of an "Order of St Benedict". His Rule is written as a guide
   for individual, autonomous communities; and to this day all Benedictine
   Houses (and the Congregations in which they have associated themselves)
   remain self-governing. Advantages seen in retaining this unique
   Benedictine emphasis on autonomy include cultivating models of tightly
   bonded communities and contemplative life-styles. Disadvantages are
   said to comprise geographical isolation from important projects in
   adjacent communities in the name of a literalist interpretation of
   autonomy. Other losses are said to include inefficiency and lack of
   mobility in the service of others, and insufficient appeal to potential
   members interested in such service.

Origins

   Christian monasticism first appeared in the Eastern part of the Roman
   Empire a few generations before Benedict, in the Egyptian desert. Under
   the spiritual inspiration of Saint Anthony the Great ( 251- 356),
   ascetic monks led by Saint Pachomius ( 286- 346) formed the first
   Christian monastic communities under what became known as an Abba
   (Egyptian for "Father", from which the term Abbot originates). Within a
   generation, both solitary and communal monasticism became very popular
   and spread outside of Egypt, first to Palestine and the Judean Desert
   and thence to Syria and North Africa. Saint Basil of Caesarea codified
   the precepts for these eastern monasteries in his Ascetic Rule, or
   Ascetica, which is still used today in the Eastern Orthodox Church.

   In the West in about the year 500, Benedict left the comfort of a
   student's life in Rome and chose the life of an ascetic monk in the
   pursuit of personal holiness, living as a hermit in a cave near
   Subiaco. In time, setting a shining example with his zeal, he began to
   attract disciples. After considerable initial struggles with his first
   community at Subiaco, he eventually founded the monastery of Monte
   Cassino, where he wrote his Rule in about 530.

   In chapter 73 St Benedict commends the Rule of St Basil and alludes to
   further authorities. He was probably aware of the Rule written by (or
   attributed to) Pachomius; and his Rule also shows influence by the
   Rules of St Augustine and Saint John Cassian. Benedict's greatest debt,
   however, may be to the anonymous Rule of the Master, which he seems to
   have radically excised, expanded, revised and corrected in the light of
   his own considerable experience and insight.

Aim

   St Benedict of Nursia (c. 480-543), detail from a fresco by Fra
   Angelico, San Marco, Florence (c. 1400-1455).
   St Benedict of Nursia (c. 480-543), detail from a fresco by Fra
   Angelico, San Marco, Florence (c. 1400-1455).

   St Benedict aimed with his Rule "to establish a school for the Lord's
   service" (cf. Prologue 45) where "we progress in this way of life
   [that, in his love, the Lord shows us] and in faith", and so "run along
   the way of God's commandments, our hearts overflowing with the
   inexpressible delight of love", in the hope that "never swerving from
   his instructions, but faithfully observing his teaching in the
   monastery until death, we shall through patience share in the passion
   of Christ that we may deserve also to share in his Kingdom" (cf. Prol.
   21; 49-50).

Intended readership

   The Prologue of St Benedict's Rule opens with the words: "Listen
   [carefully], o son" (Obsculta/Ausculta, o fili), an allusion to an
   important Old Testament wisdom tradition (e.g. Prov 1:8, 4:10, 19:20,
   23:19).

   The exclusive use of the masculine form continues throughout the entire
   Rule. Nevertheless, from earliest days, well before some modern
   editions of the Rule came to render these opening words with "Listen,
   my child", communities of women have no less lovingly and obediently
   than their Benedictine brethren "inclined the ear of their hearts" and
   "welcomed and faithfully put into practice this advice from the father
   who loves them" (cf. Prol. 1). Indeed, throughout the centuries,
   communities of women following the Rule of St Benedict have flourished
   just as much as their Benedictine brethren, if not more so. For a while
   there were also "Double Monasteries" — adjoining communities of
   Benedictine monks and nuns under the authority of one joint superior,
   usually an abbess — but they have not survived into modern times.

Overview of the Rule

   The Rule opens with a prologue or hortatory preface, in which St
   Benedict sets forth the main principles of the religious life, viz.:
   the renunciation of one's own will and arming oneself "with the strong
   and noble weapons of obedience" under the banner of " the true King,
   Christ the Lord" (Prol. 3). He proposes to establish a "school for the
   Lord's service" (Prol. 45) in which the way to salvation (Prol. 48)
   shall be taught, so that by persevering in the monastery till death his
   disciples may "through patience share in the passion of Christ that
   [they] may deserve also to share in his Kingdom" (Prol. 50, passionibus
   Christi per patientiam participemur, ut et regno eius mereamur esse
   consortes; note: Latin passionibus and patientiam have the same root,
   cf. Fry, RB 1980, p. 167).
     * In Chapter 1 are defined the four kinds of monks: (1) Cenobites,
       namely those "in a monastery, where they serve under a rule and an
       abbot"; (2) Anchorites, or hermits, those who, after long
       successful training in a monastery, are now coping single-handedly,
       with only God for their help; (3) Sarabaites, living by twos and
       threes together or even alone, with no experience, rule and
       superior, and thus a law unto themselves; and (4) Gyrovagues,
       wandering from one monastery to another, being slaves to their own
       wills and appetites. It is for the first of these kinds of monks,
       the cenobites, as the "strong kind" (fortissimum genus; arguably
       "numerically stronger", cf. Fry, RB 1980, p. 171), that the Rule is
       written.
     * Chapter 2 describes the necessary qualifications of an abbot and
       forbids him to make distinction of persons in the monastery except
       for particular merit, warning him at the same time that he will be
       answerable for the salvation of the souls committed to his care.
     * Chapter 3 ordains the calling of the brethren to council upon all
       affairs of importance to the community.
     * Chapter 4 gives a list of seventy-four "tools for good work"/"tools
       of the spiritual craft" that are to be used in the "workshop" that
       is "the enclosure of the monastery and the stability in the
       community". They are essentially the duties of every Christian and
       are mainly Scriptural either in letter or in spirit.
     * Chapter 5 prescribes prompt, ungrudging, and absolute obedience to
       the superior in all things lawful, "unhesitating obedience" being
       called the first degree, or step, of humility.
     * Chapter 6 deals with silence, recommending moderation in the use of
       speech, but by no means prohibiting profitable or necessary
       conversation.
     * Chapter 7 treats of humility, which virtue is divided into twelve
       degrees or steps in the ladder that leads to heaven. They are: (1)
       fear of God; (2) repression of self-will; (3) submission of the
       will to superiors for the love of God; (4) obedience in difficult,
       contrary or even unjust conditions; (5) confession of sinful
       thoughts and secret wrong-doings; (6) contentment with the lowest
       and most menial treatment and acknowledgment of being "a poor and
       worthless workman" in the given task; (7) honest acknowledgement of
       one's inferiority to all others; (8) being guided only by the
       monastery's common rule and the example of the superiors; (9)
       speaking only when asked a question; (10) stifling ready laughter;
       (11) seriousness, modesty, brevity and reasonableness in speech and
       a calm voice; (12) outward manifestation of the interior humility.
     * Chapters 9-19 are occupied with the regulation of the Divine
       Office, the opus Dei to which "nothing is to be preferred", namely
       the canonical hours, seven of the day and one of the night.
       Detailed arrangements are made as to the number of Psalms, etc., to
       be recited in winter and summer, on Sundays, weekdays, Holy Days,
       and at other times.
     * Chapter 19 emphasizes the reverence owed to the omnipresence of
       God.
     * Chapter 20 directs that prayer be made with heartfelt compunction
       rather than many words, and prolonged only under the inspiration of
       divine grace, but in community always short and terminated at the
       sign given by the superior.
     * Chapter 21 provides for the appointment of Deans over every ten
       monks, and prescribes the manner in which they are to be chosen.
     * Chapter 22 regulates all matters relating to the dormitory, as, for
       example, that each monk is to have a separate bed and is to sleep
       in his habit, so as to be ready to rise without delay [for early
       Vigils], and that a light shall burn in the dormitory throughout
       the night.
     * Chapter 23-29 deal with contumacy, disobedience, pride and other
       grave faults for which a graduated scale of punishments is
       provided: first, private admonition; next, public reproof; then
       separation from the brethren at meals and elsewhere; and finally
       excommunication (or in the case of those lacking understanding of
       what this means, corporal punishment instead). The abbot, like a
       wise physician and good shepherd, is to arrange for mature and wise
       members of the community to counsel wayward members in private,
       while all offer prayers in support, so that in compassion those who
       show themselves sick by their conduct may, in compassion, be
       carried back to the flock. After frequent reproofs and maybe even
       excommunication has proved unavailing, corporal punishment is to be
       dispensed. If every effort to help a wayward member reform has
       failed, the abbot and community are to pray for him, "so that the
       Lord, who can do all things, may bring about the 'health' of the
       'sick' brother". If this does not "heal" him, the abbot is to send
       him away to protect the community.
     * Chapter 30 directs that if a wayward brother leaves the monastery,
       he must be received again, if he promises to make amends; but if he
       leaves again, and again, after the third time all return is finally
       barred.
     * Chapter 31 and 32 order the appointment of a cellerar and other
       officials, to take charge of the various goods of the monastery,
       which are to be treated with as much care as the consecrated
       vessels of the altar.
     * Chapter 33 forbids the private possession of anything without the
       leave of the abbot, who is, however, bound to supply all
       necessities.
     * Chapter 34 prescribes a just distribution of such things.
     * Chapter 35 arranges for the service in the kitchen by all monks in
       turn.
     * Chapter 36 and 37 order due care for the sick, the old, and the
       young. They are to have certain dispensations from the strict Rule,
       chiefly in the matter of food.
     * Chapter 38 prescribes reading aloud during meals, which duty is to
       be performed by such of the brethren, week by week, as can do so
       with edification to the rest. Signs are to be used for whatever may
       be wanted at meals, so that no voice shall interrupt that of the
       reader. The reader is to have his meal with the servers after the
       rest have finished, but he is allowed a little food beforehand in
       order to lessen the fatigue of reading.
     * Chapter 39 and 40 regulate the quantity and quality of the food.
       Two meals a day are allowed and two dishes of cooked food at each.
       A pound of bread also and a hemina (probably about half a pint) of
       wine for each monk. Flesh-meat is prohibited except for the sick
       and the weak, and it is always within the abbot's power to increase
       the daily allowance when he sees fit.
     * Chapter 41 prescribes the hours of the meals, which are to vary
       according to the time of year.
     * Chapter 42 enjoins the reading of the " Conferences" of Cassian or
       some other edifying book in the evening before Compline and orders
       that after Compline the strictest silence shall be observed until
       the following morning.
     * Chapters 43-46 relate to minor faults, such as coming late to
       prayer or meals, and impose various penalties for such
       transgressions.
     * Chapter 47 enjoins on the abbot the duty of calling the brethren to
       the "world of God" in choir, and of appointing those who are to
       chant or read.
     * Chapter 48 emphasizes the importance of manual labour and arranges
       time to be devoted to it daily. This varies according to the
       season, but is apparently never less than about five hours a day.
       The times at which the lesser of the "day-hours" (Prime, Terce,
       Sext, and None) are to be recited control the hours of labour
       somewhat, and the abbot is instructed not only to see that all
       work, but also that the employments of each are suited to their
       respective capacities.
     * Chapter 49 treats of the observance of Lent, and recommends some
       voluntary self-denial for that season, with the abbot's sanction.
     * Chapters 50 and 51 contain rules for monks who are working in the
       fields or traveling. They are directed to join in spirit, as far as
       possible, with their brethren in the monastery at the regular hours
       of prayers.
     * Chapter 52 commands that the oratory be used for purposes of
       devotion only.
     * Chapter 53 is concerned with the treatment of guests, who are to be
       received "as Christ Himself". This Benedictine hospitality is a
       feature which has in all ages been characteristic of the order. The
       guests are to be met with due courtesy by the abbot or his deputy,
       and during their stay they are to be under the special protection
       of a monk appointed for the purpose, but they are not to associate
       with the rest of the community except by special permission.
     * Chapter 54 forbids the monks to receive letters or gifts without
       the abbot's leave.
     * Chapter 55 regulates the clothing of the monks. It is to be
       sufficient in both quantity and quality and to be suited to the
       climate and locality, according to the discretion of the abbot, but
       at the same time it must be as plain and cheap as is consistent
       with due economy. Each monk is to have a change of garments, to
       allow for washing, and when traveling shall be supplied with
       clothes of rather better quality. The old habits are to be put
       aside for the poor.
     * Chapter 56 directs that the abbot shall take his meals with the
       guests.
     * Chapter 57 enjoins humility on the craftsmen of the monastery, and
       if their work is for sale, it shall be rather below than above the
       current trade price.
     * Chapter 58 lays down rules for the admission of new members, which
       is not to be made too easy. These matters have since been regulated
       by the Church, but in the main St. Benedict's outline is adhered
       to. The postulant first spends a short time as a guest; then he is
       admitted to the novitiate, where under the care of a novice-master,
       his vocation is severely tested; during this time he is always free
       to depart. If after twelve month' probation, he still perseveres,
       he may be admitted to the vows of Stability, Conversion of Life,
       and Obedience, by which he binds himself for life to the monastery
       of his profession.
     * Chapter 59 allows the admission of boys to the monastery under
       certain conditions.
     * Chapter 60 regulates the position of priests who may desire to join
       the community. They are charged with setting an example of humility
       to all, and can only exercise their priestly functions by
       permission of the abbot.
     * Chapter 61 provides for the reception of strange monks as guests,
       and for their admission if desirous of joining the community.
     * Chapter 62 lays down that precedence in the community shall be
       determined by the date of admission, merit of life, or the
       appointment of the abbot.
     * Chapter 64 orders that the abbot be elected by his monks and that
       he be chosen for his charity, zeal, and discretion.
     * Chapter 65 allows the appointment of a provost, or prior, if need
       be, but warns that this provost is to be entirely subject to the
       abbot and may be admonished, deposed, or expelled for misconduct.
     * Chapter 66 provides for the appointment of a porter, and recommends
       that each monastery should be, if possible, self-contained, so as
       to avoid the need of intercourse with the outer world.
     * Chapter 67 gives instruction as to the behaviour of a monk who is
       sent on a journey.
     * Chapter 68 orders that all shall cheerfully attempt to do whatever
       is commanded them, however hard it may seem.
     * Chapter 69 forbids the monks from defending one another.
     * Chapter 70 prohibits them from striking one another.
     * Chapter 71 encourages the brethren to be obedient not only to the
       abbot and his officials, but also to one another.
     * Chapter 72 is a brief exhortation to zeal and fraternal charity
     * Chapter 73 is an epilogue declaring that this Rule is not offered
       as an ideal of perfection, but merely as a means towards godliness
       and is intended chiefly for beginners in the spiritual life.

Secular significance

   Beyond its religious influences, the Rule of St Benedict is one of the
   most important written works in the shaping of Western society,
   embodying, as it does, the idea of a written constitution, authority
   limited by law and under the law, and the right of the ruled to review
   the legality of the actions of their rulers. It also incorporated a
   degree of democracy in a non-democratic society.

Outline of the Benedictine life

   St Benedict's model for the monastic life was the family, with the
   abbot as father and all the monks as brothers. Priesthood was not
   initially an important part of Benedictine monasticism – monks used the
   services of their local priest. Because of this, almost all the Rule is
   applicable to communities of women under the authority of an abbess.

   St Benedict's Rule organises the monastic day into regular periods of
   communal and private prayer, sleep, spiritual reading, and manual
   labour – ut in omnibus glorificetur Deus, "that in all [things] God may
   be glorified" (cf. Rule ch. 57.9). In later centuries, intellectual
   work and teaching took the place of farming, crafts, or other forms of
   manual labour for many – if not most – Benedictines.

   Traditionally, the daily life of the Benedictine revolved around the
   eight canonical hours. The monastic timetable or Horarium would begin
   at midnight with the service, or "office", of Matins (today also called
   the Office of Readings), followed by the morning office of Lauds at
   3am. Before the advent of wax candles in the 14th century, this office
   was said in the dark or with minimal lighting; and monks were expected
   to memorize everything. These services could be very long, sometimes
   lasting till dawn, but usually consisted of a chant, three antiphons,
   three psalms, and three lessons, along with celebrations of any local
   saints' days. Afterwards the monks would retire for a few hours of
   sleep and then rise at 6am to wash and attend the office of Prime. They
   then gathered in Chapter to receive instructions for the day and to
   attend to any judicial business. Then came private Mass or spiritual
   reading or work until 9am when the office of Terce was said, and then
   High Mass. At noon came the office of Sext and the midday meal. After a
   brief period of communal recreation, the monk could retire to rest
   until the office of None at 3pm. This was followed by farming and
   housekeeping work until after twilight, the evening prayer of Vespers
   at 6pm, then the night prayer of Compline at 9pm, and off to blessed
   bed before beginning the cycle again. In modern times, this timetable
   is often changed to accommodate any apostolate outside the monastic
   enclosure (e.g. the running of a school or parish).

   Many Benedictine Houses have a number of Oblates (secular) who are
   affiliated with them in prayer, having made a formal private promise
   (usually renewed annually) to follow the Rule of St Benedict in their
   private life as closely as their individual circumstances and prior
   commitments permit.

   In recent years discussions have occasionally been held concerning the
   applicability of the principles and spirit of the Rule of St Benedict
   to the secular working environment.

Reforms

   During the more than 1500 years of their existence, the Benedictines
   have not been immune to periods of laxity and decline, often following
   periods of greater prosperity and an attendant relaxing of discipline.
   In such times, dynamic Benedictines have often led reform movements to
   return to a stricter observance of both the letter and spirit of the
   Rule of St Benedict, at least as they understood it. Examples include
   the Camaldolese, the Cistercians, the Trappists (a reform of the
   Cistercians), and the Sylvestrines. At the heart of reform movements,
   past and present, lie hermeneutical questions about what fidelity to
   tradition means. For example are sixth-century objectives, like
   blending in with contemporary dress or providing service to visitors,
   better served or compromised by retaining sixth-century clothing or by
   insisting that service excludes formal educational enterprises?

Urban legend concerning the Rule of St Benedict

   A popular urban legend claims that the Rule of St Benedict (when
   translated into English), contains the following (or similar) passage:

          If any pilgrim shall come from distant parts with wish to dwell
          in the monastery, and will be content with the customs of the
          place, and does not by his lavishness disturb the monastery but
          is simply content, he shall be received for as long as he
          wishes.

          If, indeed, he shall find fault with anything, and shall expose
          the matter reasonably and with the humility of charity, the
          Abbott shall discuss it with him prudently lest perchance God
          hath sent him for this very thing.

          But, if he shall have been found contumacious during his sojourn
          in the monastery, then it shall be said to him, firmly, that he
          must depart. If he will not go, let two stout monks, in the name
          of God, explain the matter to him.

   Though much of the supposed passage is condensed from Chapter 61 of the
   Rule, the Rule of St Benedict contains no language corresponding to the
   last sentence about "two stout monks"; though it is a popular myth that
   it does, with several reputable publications (and more than one church,
   and at least one Benedictine organization) repeating and propagating
   the error. At least one of the sources cited attributes the passage to
   a mythical Chapter 74; the Rule of St Benedict contains only 73
   chapters. .

   An early source for the quotation is the UC Berkeley faculty club,
   which has, for years, posted the above passage on its bulletin board in
   Gothic script. (There, the notice was not attributed to St Benedict). .
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