   #copyright

Santorini

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: European Geography

   Satellite image of Santorini. Clockwise from center: Nea Kameni; Palea
   Kameni; Aspronisi; Therasia; Thera
   Enlarge
   Satellite image of Santorini. Clockwise from centre: Nea Kameni; Palea
   Kameni; Aspronisi; Therasia; Thera

   Santorini ( Greek Σαντορίνη) is a small, circular group of volcanic
   islands located in the Aegean Sea, about 200 km south-east from the
   mainland of Greece. It is also known by the name of the largest island
   in the archipelago, Thera (or Thira; Greek Θήρα). It is the
   southernmost member of the Cyclades group of islands, with an area of
   approximately 73 km² (28 mi²), and in 2001 had an estimated population
   of 13,600. Its spectacular natural beauty along with its eminent
   nightlife make the island one of Europe's top tourist hotspots.

   A giant central lagoon, more or less rectangular and measuring about 12
   km by 7 km (8 mi by 4 mi), is surrounded by 300 m (984 ft) high sheer
   cliffs on three sides. The island slopes downward from the cliffs to
   the surrounding Mediterranean sea. On the fourth side, the lagoon is
   separated from the Mediterranean by another much smaller island called
   Therasia, also with cliffs. The lagoon is joined to the sea in two
   places, in the northwest and southwest. The water in the centre of the
   lagoon is nearly 400 m (1,300 ft) deep, so it is an ideal safe harbour
   for even the biggest ships. The island's ports are all in the lagoon
   and there are no ports on the outside of the island. The towns of
   Santorini cling to the top of the cliff looking down on the lagoon.

   It is the most active volcanic centre in the South Aegean Volcanic Arc,
   though what remains today is largely a water-filled caldera. The name
   Santorini was given to it by the Latin empire in the thirteenth century
   and is a reference to Saint Irene. Before then it was called Kallistē
   ("the most beautiful one"), Strongylē ("the circular one"), or Thera.

   The island was the site of one of the largest volcanic eruptions of the
   last several thousand years when it erupted cataclysmically about 3,500
   years ago. The eruption left a large caldera surrounded by volcanic ash
   deposits hundreds of feet deep, and its effects may have indirectly led
   to the collapse of the Minoan civilization on the island of Crete, 110
   km (70 mi) to the south. One popular theory holds that the Thera
   eruption is the source of the legend of Atlantis.

Minoan Advances

   During the early 1900s, Sir Arthur Evans arrived on Crete in 1900 and
   began digging at a hilltop settlement called Knossos or Knossus. There
   he discovered elaborate ruins he believed to be from the Minoan Empire,
   and so he dubbed them Minoan ruins. These Minoans had an engineering
   excellence that would not be seen again for centuries. Evans unearthed
   a magnificent stone throne, which was at the heart of a 4,000 year old
   palace complex as big as four football fields. This palace had four
   floors, 1,300+ rooms (ten times as many rooms as the White House in
   Washington DC), and was connected by miles of passageways. On the
   mainland during the time of the Minoans there was no grand architecture
   of any kind, consisting of four-roomed mud & brick structures at best.
   In addition, the advanced Minoan plumbing system had hot and cold
   running water (hot water from geothermal sources), as well as
   drainage/waste disposal, all of which predated the mainland Greek and
   Roman sophisticated plumbing systems by over 1,000 years.

Development of the Atlantis Connection

   It was not hard to see why this location was added to the list of
   possible locations for the fabled city of Atlantis. As with most myths,
   connections to real places are usually dubious, and serious scientists
   are often skeptical. However, the latest archaeological, seismilogical
   and vulcanological evidence (popularized on The History Channel show
   Lost Worlds, episode "Atlantis") regarding Crete, Santorini and the
   description of Atlantis from Plato, is compelling enough (though not
   yet conclusive) that respected scientists are beginning to take it
   seriously:
     * Plato's description of a palace where water was plentiful and is
       collected from the surrounding hills, seems to be a good match with
       the digs at Knossus and Akroteri. Plato also describes the palace
       of Atlantis as a multi-level acropolis sitting on a great,
       flattened, terraced hilltop. Again, this matches the palace at
       Knossus.

     * In addition, the large foundation blocks of the palace walls were
       constructed of a crystalline stone called gypsum, quarried locally
       and cut into blocks with bronze saws. In Plato's Atlantis
       description, the external walls of the palace were said to "shine
       like silver," which is how a gypsum wall could have appeared as it
       glistened in the sun.

     * Construction of the structure was advanced for its time period. The
       ancient engineers were able to control the path of air and light
       through the depths of the palace quarters, using "peer and door
       partitioning", spiral staircase "light wells" and other features.
       Since violent quakes were common in the area, the palace engineers
       devised an anti-seismic technique, the buttressing of the
       unmortared walls with wooden frames and internal beams - another
       novelty for the age in which it was constructed.

   Minoan civilization disappeared suddenly, at the height of its wealth
   and power. This was also similar to Plato's description of the fate of
   the "Atlanteans". Scientists theorize that multiple tsunamis hit the
   island of Crete, circa 1500 BCE, that came from the direction of the
   island of Santorini (then called Thera) about 100 miles from Crete.
     * Santorini is the site of massive caldera, which surrounds an island
       at its centre. Vulcanologists have determined this ill-fated island
       was engulfed by the terrible ca. 1500 BCE eruption of the Stroggilí
       volcano there, which affected the entire eastern Mediterranean, as
       far away as the Near East — possibly the most powerful eruption in
       recorded history, ejecting approximately 30 cu km (7 cu mi) of
       magma, up to 36 km (23 mi) high. Volcanic events of this magnitude
       regularly generate tsunamis. The eruption is also theorized by some
       to explain most of the seemingly miraculous Biblical events of
       Exodus (an idea made popular and controversial in the general
       public by another 2006 History Channel documentary on the subject,
       " The Exodus Decoded").

     * In 1966 at Akroteri, archeologist James Maber Jr. uncovered an
       ancient city at the island's perimeter. The town remained
       substantially intact, like Pompeii, covered in ash. In fact, the
       entire island of Santorini was covered by volcanic deposits that
       fell during a single eruption. This layer of pumice and debris is
       over 100 feet deep. Underneath it, archeologists uncovered more
       homes with sophisticated plumbing and advanced engineering similar
       to those of Knossus.

     * The island-city of Atlantis was described as being laid out in a
       series of concentric circles of land and water. Each one connected
       to the ocean by a deep canal. Docks for a huge number of ships, and
       a causeway for unloading cargo of said ships, was also described.
       Unearthed frescos from the island have depicted Santorini with a
       configuration that can be interpreted in this way. It also shows a
       huge city on the island, theorized by archaelogists to represent
       the centre of the caldera.

     * At Akroteri there are multi-story buildings. This city may have had
       the earliest form of town planning (structured assembly of
       interconnecting roads and paths) ever discovered. Again, with fresh
       running water and toilets in each house, leading out to a sewer
       system. Many such sites have now been unearthed both on Crete and
       Santorini.

     * Plato described quarries on the island of Atlantis where "rocks of
       white, black, and red" were extracted from the hills and used to
       construct a great island city. The description matches the rocks
       found on Santorini.

     * The final clue is Plato's reference to Egypt as the source of the
       Atlantis myth, via Solon. The Egyptians called Atlantis " Kepchu",
       which also happens to be their name for the people of Crete. It is
       speculated that survivors of the Minoan volcanic disaster asked
       Egypt for help, since they were the only other civilization with
       high culture at the time. Further evidence may suggest that the
       Jewish people held as slaves in Egypt might have been refugees from
       the Santorini catastrophe. Investigations are ongoing.

   The scientists Dr. J. Alexander MacGuuvry (archeologist), Dr. Colin F.
   MacDonald (archeologist), Professor Floyd McCoy (vulcanologist),
   professor Clairy Palyvou (architect), and Dr. Garassimos Papadopoulos
   (seismologist) are featured prominently in the documentary and the
   above are examples of their research and conclusions.

"Minoan" Akrotiri

   Linear A script etched on a vase found in Akrotiri
   Enlarge
   Linear A script etched on a vase found in Akrotiri

   Excavations starting in 1967 at the site called Akrotiri under the late
   Prof. Spyridon Marinatos have made Thera the best-known " Minoan" site
   outside of Crete, the homeland of the culture. The island was not
   called Thera at the time. Only the southern tip of a large town has
   been uncovered, yet it has revealed complexes of multi-level buildings,
   streets and squares, with remains of walls standing as high as 8
   meters, all entombed in the solidified ash of the famous eruption of
   Thera. The site was not a palace-complex such as are found in Crete,
   but its excellent masonry and fine wall-paintings show that this was no
   conglomeration of merchants' warehousing either. A loom-workshop
   suggests organized textile weaving for export.
   The "saffron-gatherers"
   Enlarge
   The "saffron-gatherers"

   The houses in Akrotiri are major structures and some of them are three
   stories high. Streets and squares and walls standing as high as 8
   meters indicate that this was a major town. In many houses the stone
   staircases are still intact, and they contain huge ceramic storage jars
   ( pithoi), mills, and pottery. The most famous archaeological remains
   found in Akrotiri are wall paintings or frescoes, which have kept their
   original colour very well, as they were preserved under many meters of
   volcanic ash. The town had a highly developed drainage system and its
   citizens were clearly very sophisticated and relatively wealthy people,
   judging from the fine art work.

   Pipes with running water and water closets found on Thera are the
   oldest such utilities discovered. The pipes run in twin systems,
   indicating that the Therans used both hot and cold water supplies. The
   hot water's origin was probably geothermic, given the volcano's
   proximity. The dual pipe system suggesting hot and cold running water,
   the advanced architecture, and the apparent layout of the Akrotiri find
   resembles Plato's description of the fictional lost city of Atlantis,
   further indicating the Minoans as the culture which primarily inspired
   the Atlantis legend.
   Landscape of spring time. Fresco from the bronze age, Akrotiri.
   Enlarge
   Landscape of spring time. Fresco from the bronze age, Akrotiri.

   Fragmentary wall-paintings at Akrotiri lack the insistent mythological
   content familiar in both Greek and Christian decor. Instead, the Minoan
   frescoes depict "Saffron-Gatherers", who offer their crocus-stamens to
   a seated lady, perhaps a goddess; in another house are two antelopes,
   painted with a kind of confident, flowing decorative, calligraphic
   line, the famous fresco of a fisherman with his double strings of fish
   strung by their gills, and the flotilla of pleasure boats, accompanied
   by leaping dolphins, where ladies take their ease in the shade of light
   canopies, among other frescoes.

   The well preserved ruins of the ancient town are often compared to the
   spectacular ruins at Pompeii in Italy. Unfortunately for would-be
   visitors the canopy covering the ruins collapsed in September, 2005,
   killing one tourist and injuring seven more. The site remains closed
   while a new canopy is built.

   The oldest signs of human settlement are Late Neolithic ( 4th
   millennium BCE or earlier), but ca. 2000– 1650 BCE Akrotiri developed
   into one of the Aegean's major Bronze Age ports, with recovered objects
   that had come not just from Crete but also from Anatolia, Cyprus, Syria
   and Egypt, from the Dodecanese and the Greek mainland.

Dating

   The Minoan eruption provides a fixed point for aligning the entire
   chronology of the 2nd millennium in the Aegean. Evidence of the
   eruption occurs throughout the region, and the site itself contains
   material culture from outside. The eruption occurred during the "Late
   Minoan IA" period at Crete and the "Late Cycladic I" in the surrounding
   islands.

   However, the exact date of the eruption is unknown. Recent opinion
   based on dendrochronology and radiocarbon dating indicates that the
   eruption occurred between about 1650 and 1600 BCE. These dates,
   however, conflict with the usual date range from archaeological
   evidence, which is between about 1550 BCE and 1500 BC.

   Some scholars believe the radiocarbon dates to be completely wrong.
   Some suggest re-scaling archaeological chronologies with the
   radiocarbon dates. Others look for a compromise between the
   archaeological and radiocarbon dates for best fits of both sets of
   data. Re-scaling archaeological chronologies is controversial, because
   revising the Aegean Bronze Age chronology could require, by
   association, revising the well-established conventional Egyptian
   chronology. The debate about the date continues.

Ancient volcanic eruption

   The devastating volcanic eruption of Thera has become the most famous
   single event in the Aegean before the fall of Troy. The eruption would
   likely have caused a significant climate upset for the eastern
   Mediterranean region. It was one of the biggest volcanic eruptions on
   Earth in the last few thousand years.

Physical effects

   Volcanic craters at Santorini today.
   Enlarge
   Volcanic craters at Santorini today.

   The violent eruption was centred on a small island just north of the
   existing island of Nea Kameni in the centre of the caldera. The caldera
   itself was formed several hundred thousand years ago by collapse of the
   centre of a circular island caused by the emptying of the magma chamber
   during an eruption. It has been filled several times by ignimbrite
   since then and the process repeated, most recently 21,000 years ago.
   The northern part of the caldera was refilled by the volcano and then
   collapsed again during the Minoan eruption. Before the Minoan eruption,
   the caldera formed a nearly continuous ring with the only entrance
   between the tiny island of Aspronisi and Thera. The eruption destroyed
   the sections of the ring between Aspronisi and Therasia, and between
   Therasia and Thera, creating two new channels.

   On Santorini, there is a deposit of white tephra thrown from the
   eruption; it is up to 60 metres thick overlying the soil marking the
   ground level before the eruption. The layer is divided into three
   fairly distinct bands indicating different phases of the eruption. New
   archaeological discoveries by a team of international scientists in
   2006 have revealed that the Santorini event was much more massive than
   previously thought. It expelled 61 cubic kilometres of magma and rock
   into Earth's atmosphere compared to previous estimates of only 39 cubic
   kilometres in 1991. Only the Mount Tambora volcanic eruption of 1815
   (and possibly the eruption at Lake Taupo of 181 CE) released more
   material into the atmosphere in the past 5,000 years — at an estimated
   100 cubic kilometres.

Development of the Exodus Connection

   The eruption of Santorini has been connected to the Israelite Exodus
   from Egypt and to the Ipuwer Papyrus, which in turn have been connected
   to each other. These theories would tie the eruption to Pharaoh
   Dudimose in the Second Intermediate Period of Egyptian History.

   A 2006 documentary created by filmmaker Simcha Jacobovici, which
   explores new evidence in favour of the account of the Book of Exodus, "
   Exodus Decoded" ( The History Channel, aired Sunday, 20 August, 2006),
   investigates Egyptian records of the departure of the mysterious
   Semitic Hyksos.

   Jacobovici suggests that the Hyksos and the Hebrews (whom he calls "Amo
   Israel", "the people of God") were one and the same, a thesis he
   supports with Egyptian-style signet rings uncovered in the Hyksos
   capital of Avaris. These signets read Yakov, similar to Hebrew name of
   the Biblical patriarch Jacob ( Ya'aqov). Another standpoint for this
   theory is one of the important Hyksos cities, Avaris, which is called
   modernly Tel el-Yahudiyeh (meaning "mound of the Jews") known for its
   distinctive black and whiteware.

   Jacobovici propounds the theory that the eruption of the Santorini
   Island volcano (c. 1623 B.C., +/-25) caused all the biblical plagues
   described against Egypt, redating the eruption to c. 1500 B.C.. The
   Hyksos, some of them Mycenaean Greek "Hebrews", fled Egypt (which they
   had in fact ruled for some time) after the eruption. Jacobovici (and
   fellow producer James Cameron) make a dramatic but rather
   thinly-supported presentation that the Hyksos were none other than the
   Israelites, who may have also been known as Habiru ("Hebrews"). The
   pharaoh with whom they identify the Pharaoh of the Exodus is Ahmose I,
   whose name means "the moon is born" in Egyptian, and "brother of Moses"
   in Hebrew.

Greek, Byzantine and Ottoman Santorini

   Santorini remained unoccupied throughout the rest of the Bronze Age,
   during which time the Greeks took over Crete.

   At Knossos, in a LMIIIA context ( 14th century BCE), seven Linear B
   texts while calling upon "all the gods" make sure to grant primacy to
   an elsewhere-unattested entity called qe-ra-si-ja and, once,
   qe-ra-si-jo. If the endings -ia[s] and -ios represent an ethnikonic
   suffix, then this means "The One From Qeras[os]". If aspirated, *Qhera-
   would have become "Thera-" in later Greek. "Therasia" and its ethnikon
   "Therasios" are both attested in later Greek; and, since -sos was
   itself a genitive suffix in the Aegean Sprachbund, *Qeras[os] could
   also shrink to *Qera. (An alternate view takes qe-ra-si-ja and
   qe-ra-si-jo as proof of androgyny, and applies this name by similar
   arguments to the legendary seer, Tiresias. But these views are not
   mutually exclusive.) If qe-ra-si-ja was an ethnikon first, then in
   following him/her/it the Cretans also feared whence it came. Minoan
   Qe-Ra-Si-Ja. The Religious Impact of the Thera Volcano on Minoan Crete

   Over the centuries after the general catastrophes of 1200 BCE,
   Phoenicians founded a site on Thera.

   Then, in the 9th century BCE, Dorians founded the main Hellenic city -
   on Mesa Vouno, 396 m above sea level. These people later claimed that
   they had named the city and the island after their leader, Theras.
   House from the Doric colony of Thera
   Enlarge
   House from the Doric colony of Thera

   The Dorians have left a number of inscriptions incised in stone, in the
   vicinity of the temple of Apollo, attesting to pederastic relations
   between the authors and their eromenoi. These inscriptions, found by
   Friedrich Hiller von Gaertringen, have been thought by some
   archeologists to be of a ritual, celebratory nature, due to their large
   size, careful construction and - in some cases - execution by craftsmen
   other than the authors. Other historians, such as Dover and Marrou,
   have considered them to be pornographic in nature. Theran graffiti in
   translation

   According to Herodotus (4.149-165), following a drought of seven years,
   Thera sent out colonists who founded a number of cities in northern
   Africa, including Cyrene.

   In the 5th century BCE, Dorian Thera did not join the Delian League
   with Athens; and during the Peloponnesian War, Thera sided with Dorian
   Sparta against Athens. The Athenians took the island during the war,
   but lost it again after the Battle of Aegospotami.

   As with other Greek territories, Thera then was ruled by the Romans;
   and it passed to the eastern side of the Empire when it divided - which
   became the Byzantine Empire.

   During the Crusades, the Franks settled it. In the 13th century CE, the
   Venetians annexed it to the Duchy of Naxos and renamed it "Santorini",
   that is "Saint Irene".

   Santorini came under Ottoman rule in 1579.

Modern Santorini

   Oia at night
   Enlarge
   Oia at night

   Santorini was annexed to Greece in 1912. Major settlements in Santorini
   include Fira (Phira), Oia, Emporio, Kamari, Imerovigli, Pyrgos and
   Therasia. Akrotiri is a major archaeological site with ruins from the
   Minoan era. The island has no rivers and water is scarce. Until the
   early nineties locals used to fill water cisterns from the rain that
   fell on their roofs and courts, from small springs as well as by
   importing it from other areas of Greece. Nowadays, there is a
   desalination plant that provides running, yet nonpotable, water to most
   houses. The primary industry of Santorini is tourism and in the summer
   the island can get quite crowded. The pumice quarries have been closed
   since 1986 in order to preserve the caldera of Santorini.
   Houses built on the edge of the volcano at Santorini.
   Enlarge
   Houses built on the edge of the volcano at Santorini.

   Santorini is home to a small but flourishing wine industry, based on
   the indigenous grape variety, Assyrtiko. Assyrtiko vines are extremely
   old and are resistant to phylloxera. Consequently they did not need to
   be replaced during the great phylloxera epidemic of the early 20th
   century. Assyrtiko Vines are well adapted to the Santorini habitat and
   are planted far apart as their principal source of moisture is dew.
   They are trained in the shape of baskets, with the grapes hanging
   inside to protect them from the winds. Also unique is the red, sweet
   and extremely strong Vinsanto. White wines from the island are
   extremely dry with a strong, citrus scent; the ash resulting from
   volcanoes, gives the white wines a bit of a mineral/smoke flavor much
   like the Visanto. It is not easy to be a wine grower in Santorini, the
   hot and dry climate gives the soil a low productivity. The yield per
   acre is only 10 to 20% of the yields that are common in France and
   California. That said, the wine can be delicious. It has a hint of a
   smokey flavor, the latter undoubtedly from the still active volcano.

   In 1707 an undersea volcano breached the sea surface forming the
   current centre of activity at Nea Kameni, and eruptions centred on it
   continue—three times in the twentieth century, the last being in 1950.
   Santorini was also struck by a devastating earthquake in 1956. At some
   time in the future, it will undoubtedly erupt violently again.

Gallery

   Grape plants growing directly on the ground (without any support for
   the branches), Santorini, Greece.

   Grapevines at Santorini.

   Tourists at Oia watching to see the sunset.

   A donkey ride is one of the more exotic travelling options Santorini
   has to offer.

   Thira, taken from a ship in the harbour.
   Panoramic view of the Santorini caldera, taken from Imerovigli.
   Enlarge
   Panoramic view of the Santorini caldera, taken from Imerovigli.
   Retrieved from " http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santorini"
   This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia
   with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details
   of authors and sources) and is available under the GNU Free
   Documentation License. See also our Disclaimer.
