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Science

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Everyday life

   Part of a scientific laboratory at the University of Cologne.
   Enlarge
   Part of a scientific laboratory at the University of Cologne.

   Science in the broadest sense refers to any system of objective
   knowledge. In a more restricted sense, science refers to a system of
   acquiring knowledge based on the scientific method, as well as to the
   organized body of knowledge humans have gained by such research.

   There are different points of view regarding the scientific method:
   Methodological naturalism maintains that scientific investigation must
   adhere to empirical study and independent verification as a process for
   properly developing and evaluating natural explanations for observable
   phenomena. Methodological naturalism typically, therefore, rejects
   supernatural explanations, arguments from authority and biased
   observational studies. Critical rationalism instead holds that unbiased
   observation is not possible and a demarcation between natural and
   supernatural explanations is arbitrary; it instead proposes
   falsifiability as the landmark of scientific theories and falsification
   as the universal scientific method. (This approach has been generalized
   to pancritical rationalism.) Instrumentalism rejects the concept of
   truth and emphasizes merely the utility of theories as instruments for
   explaining and predicting phenomena.

   Fields of science are commonly classified along two major lines:
     * Natural sciences, which study natural phenomena
     * Social sciences, which study human behaviour and societies

   Whether mathematics is a science is a matter of perspective. It is
   similar to other sciences in that it is a careful, systematic study of
   an area of knowledge — specifically, it focuses on a priori knowledge.
   Mathematics as a whole is vital to the sciences — indeed, major
   advances in mathematics have often led to major advances in other
   sciences. Certain aspects of mathematics are indispensable for the
   formation of hypotheses, theories, and laws, both in discovering and
   describing how things work (natural sciences) and how people think and
   act (social sciences).

   Science as defined above is sometimes termed pure science in order to
   differentiate it from applied science, the latter being the application
   of scientific research to human needs.
   The Bohr model of the atom, like many ideas in the history of science,
   was at first prompted by and later partially disproved by experiment.
   Enlarge
   The Bohr model of the atom, like many ideas in the history of science,
   was at first prompted by and later partially disproved by experiment.

Etymology

   The word science comes from the Latin word scientia for knowledge,
   which in turn comes from scio - I know. The Indo-European root means to
   discern or to separate, akin to Sanskrit chyati, he cuts off, Greek
   schizein, to split, Latin scindere, to split. From the Middle Ages to
   the Enlightenment, science or scientia meant any systematic or exact
   recorded knowledge. Science therefore had the same sort of very broad
   meaning that philosophy had at that time. In some languages, including
   French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian, the word corresponding to
   science still carries this meaning.

   Sciences versus Science: the plural of the term is often used but is
   difficult to distinguish in usage without referring to a complex
   etymology like the above. Therefore it might be helpful to distinguish
   "sciences" generally as relating to "whole bodies of knowledge" that
   are separated in some way, as by discipline, subject(s), or most
   generally, by references meaning without regard to time.

   From classical times until the advent of the modern era, philosophy was
   divided into natural philosophy and moral philosophy. In the 1800s, the
   term natural philosophy gradually gave way to the term natural science.
   Natural science was gradually specialized to its current domain, which
   typically includes the physical sciences and biological sciences. The
   social sciences, inheriting portions of the realm of moral philosophy,
   are currently also included under the auspices of science to the extent
   that these disciplines use empirical methods. As currently understood,
   moral philosophy still retains the study of ethics, regarded as a
   branch of philosophy and one of the three classical normative sciences.

Scientific method

   Scientists use models to refer to a description of something,
   specifically one which can be used to make predictions that can be
   tested by experiment or observation. A hypothesis is a contention that
   has been neither well supported nor yet ruled out by experiment. A
   theory, in the context of science, is a logically self-consistent model
   or framework for describing the behavior of a certain natural
   phenomenon. A theory typically describes the behaviour of much broader
   sets of phenomena than a hypothesis — commonly, a large number of
   hypotheses may be logically bound together by a single theory. A
   physical law or law of nature is a scientific generalization based on a
   sufficiently large number of empirical observations that it is taken as
   fully verified.

   Scientific method seeks to explain the complexities of nature in a
   common, known, and easily replicated way, and to use these explanations
   to make useful predictions. The scientific method provides an objective
   process to find solutions to problems in a number of scientific and
   technological fields. Often scientists have a preference for one
   outcome over another, and it is important that this preference does not
   bias their interpretation. The scientific method attempts to minimize
   the influence of a scientist's bias on the outcome of an experiment.
   This can be achieved by correct experimental design, and thorough peer
   review of experimental design as well as conclusions of a study.

   Scientists never claim absolute knowledge. Unlike a mathematical proof,
   a proven scientific theory is always open to falsification, if new
   evidence is presented. Even the most basic and fundamental theories may
   turn out to be imperfect if new observations are inconsistent with
   them. Critical to this process is making every relevant aspect of
   research publicly available, which permits peer review of published
   results, and also allows ongoing review and repeating of experiments
   and observations by multiple researchers operating independently of one
   another. Only by fulfilling these expectations can it be determined how
   reliable the experimental results are for potential use by others.

   Isaac Newton's Newtonian law of gravitation is a famous example of an
   established law that was later found not to be universal - it does not
   hold in experiments involving motion at speeds close to the speed of
   light or in close proximity of strong gravitational fields. Outside
   these conditions, Newton's Laws remain an excellent model of motion and
   gravity. Since general relativity accounts for all the same phenomena
   that Newton's Laws do and more, general relativity is now regarded as a
   better theory.

Philosophy of science

   The philosophy of science seeks to understand the nature and
   justification of scientific knowledge, and its ethical implications. It
   has proven difficult to provide a definitive account of the scientific
   method that can decisively serve to distinguish science from
   non-science. Thus there are legitimate arguments about exactly where
   the borders are. There is nonetheless a set of core precepts that have
   broad consensus among published philosophers of science and within the
   scientific community at large. (see: Problem of demarcation)

   Science is reasoned-based analysis of sensation upon our awareness. As
   such, the scientific method cannot deduce anything about the realm of
   reality that is beyond what is observable by existing or theoretical
   means. When a manifestation of our reality previously considered
   supernatural is understood in the terms of causes and consequences, it
   acquires a scientific explanation.

   Resting on reason and logic, along with other guidelines such as
   Ockham's Razor, which states a principle of parsimony, scientific
   theories are formulated and the most promising theory is selected after
   analyzing the collected evidence. Some of the findings of science can
   be very counter-intuitive. Atomic theory, for example, implies that a
   granite boulder which appears a heavy, hard, solid, grey object is
   actually a combination of subatomic particles with none of these
   properties, moving very rapidly in space where the mass is concentrated
   in a very small fraction of the total volume. Many of humanity's
   preconceived notions about the workings of the universe have been
   challenged by new scientific discoveries. Quantum mechanics,
   particularly, examines phenomena that seem to defy our most basic
   postulates about causality and fundamental understanding of the world
   around us. Science is the branch of knowledge dealing with people and
   the understanding we have of our environment and how it works.

Mathematics and the scientific method

   Mathematics is essential to many sciences. The most important function
   of mathematics in science is the role it plays in the expression of
   scientific models. Observing and collecting measurements, as well as
   hypothesizing and predicting, often require mathematical models and
   extensive use of mathematics. Mathematical branches most often used in
   science include calculus and statistics, although virtually every
   branch of mathematics has applications, even "pure" areas such as
   number theory and topology. Mathematics is most prevalent in physics,
   but less so in chemistry, biology, and some social sciences.

   Some thinkers see mathematicians as scientists, regarding physical
   experiments as inessential or mathematical proofs as equivalent to
   experiments. Others do not see mathematics as a science, since it does
   not require experimental test of its theories and hypotheses, although
   some theorems can be disproved by contradiction through finding
   exceptions. (More specifically, mathematical theorems and formulas are
   obtained by logical derivations which presume axiomatic systems, rather
   than a combination of empirical observation and method of reasoning
   that has come to be known as scientific method.) In either case, the
   fact that mathematics is such a useful tool in describing the universe
   is a central issue in the philosophy of mathematics.

   Richard Feynman said "Mathematics is not real, but it feels real. Where
   is this place?", while Bertrand Russell quipped, in allusion to the
   abstraction inherent in the axiomatic method, that "Mathematics may be
   defined as the subject in which we never know what we are talking
   about, nor whether what we are saying is true."

   Mathematics cannot be considered pure science as everything that is
   mathematically correct may not be physically or practically correct. It
   is a tool to study various fields of science and to effectively pursue
   the scientific method.

Goals of science

   The underlying goal or purpose of science to society and individuals is
   to produce useful models of reality. John Locke said that it is
   virtually impossible to make inferences from human senses which
   actually describe what “is.” On the other hand, people can form
   hypotheses based on observations that they make in the world. By
   analyzing a number of related hypotheses, scientists can form general
   theories. These theories benefit society or human individuals who make
   use of them. For example, Newton's theories of physics allow us to
   predict various physical interactions, from the collision of one moving
   billiard ball with another, to trajectories of space shuttles and
   satellites. Relativity can be used to calculate the effects of our
   sun's gravity on a mass light-years away. The social sciences allow us
   to predict (with limited accuracy for now) things like economic
   turbulence and also to better understand human behaviour and to produce
   useful models of society and to work more empirically with government
   policies. Chemistry and biology together have transformed our ability
   to use and predict chemical and biological reactions and scenarios. In
   modern times though, these segregated scientific disciplines (notably
   the latter two) are more often being used together in conjunction to
   produce more complete models and tools. One goal of science is to
   explain and utilize multiple known phenomena with one theory or set of
   theories.

   Despite popular impressions of science, it is not the goal of science
   to answer all questions. The goal of the sciences is to answer only
   those that pertain to perceived reality. Also, science cannot possibly
   address nonsensical, or untestable questions, so the choice of which
   questions to answer becomes important. Science does not and can not
   produce absolute and unquestionable truth. Rather, science tests some
   aspect of the world and provides a reasonable theory to explain it.

   Science is not a source of subjective value judgments, though it can
   certainly speak to matters of ethics and public policy by pointing to
   the likely consequences of actions. What one projects from the
   currently most reasonable scientific hypothesis onto other realms of
   interest is not a scientific issue, and the scientific method offers no
   assistance for those who wish to do so. Scientific justification (or
   refutation) for many things is, nevertheless, often claimed. Of course,
   value judgments are intrinsic to science itself. For example,
   scientists value relative truth and knowledge.

   In short, science produces useful models which allow us to make often
   useful predictions. Science attempts to describe what is, but avoids
   trying to determine what is (which is for practical reasons
   impossible). Science is a useful tool. . . it is a growing body of
   understanding that allows us to contend more effectively with our
   surroundings and to better adapt and evolve as a social whole as well
   as independently.

   For a large part of recorded history, science had little bearing on
   people's everyday lives. Scientific knowledge was gathered for its own
   sake, and it had few practical applications. However, with the dawn of
   the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century, this rapidly changed.
   Today, science has a profound effect on the way we live, largely
   through its applications in new technology.

   Some forms of technology have become so well established that it is
   easy to forget the great scientific achievements that they represent.
   The refrigerator, for example, owes its existence to a discovery that
   liquids take in energy when they evaporate, a phenomenon known as
   latent heat. The principle of latent heat was first exploited in a
   practical way in 1876, and the refrigerator has played a major role in
   maintaining public health ever since (see Refrigeration). The first
   automobile, dating from the 1880s, made use of many advances in physics
   and engineering, including reliable ways of generating high-voltage
   sparks, while the first computers emerged in the 1940s from
   simultaneous advances in electronics and mathematics.

   Other fields of science also play an important role in the things we
   use or consume every day. Research in food technology has created new
   ways of preserving and flavoring what we eat (see Food processing).
   Research in industrial chemistry has created a vast range of plastics
   and other synthetic materials, which have thousands of uses in the home
   and in industry. Synthetic materials are easily formed into complex
   shapes and can be used to make machine, electrical, and automotive
   parts, scientific and industrial instruments, decorative objects,
   containers, and many other items.

   Alongside these achievements, science has also brought about technology
   that helps save human life. The kidney dialysis machine enables many
   people to survive kidney diseases that would once have proved fatal,
   and artificial valves allow sufferers of coronary heart disease to
   return to active living. Biochemical research is responsible for the
   antibiotics and vaccinations that protect us from infectious diseases,
   and for a wide range of other drugs used to combat specific health
   problems. As a result, the majority of people on the planet now live
   longer and healthier lives than ever before.

   However, scientific discoveries can also have a negative impact in
   human affairs. Over the last hundred years, some of the technological
   advances that make life easier or more enjoyable have proved to have
   unwanted and often unexpected long-term effects. Industrial and
   agricultural chemicals pollute the global environment, even in places
   as remote as Antarctica, and city air is contaminated by toxic gases
   from vehicle exhausts (see Pollution). The increasing pace of
   innovation means that products become rapidly obsolete, adding to a
   rising tide of waste (see Solid Waste Disposal). Most significantly of
   all, the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas
   releases into the atmosphere carbon dioxide and other substances known
   as greenhouse gases. These gases have altered the composition of the
   entire atmosphere, producing global warming and the prospect of major
   climate change in years to come.

   Science has also been used to develop technology that raises complex
   ethical questions. This is particularly true in the fields of biology
   and medicine (see Medical Ethics). Research involving genetic
   engineering, cloning, and in vitro fertilization gives scientists the
   unprecedented power to bring about new life, or to devise new forms of
   living things. At the other extreme, science can also generate
   technology that is deliberately designed to harm or to kill. The fruits
   of this research include chemical and biological warfare, and also
   nuclear weapons, by far the most destructive weapons that the world has
   ever known.

Where science is practiced

   Science is practiced formally, in universities and other institutions
   that impart science education or pursue research in a branch of
   science. Science has become a solid vocation in academia. However,
   informally many more people who are not associated with any university
   or research institute practice science in their daily life. As people
   involved in the field of science education often argue that the process
   of science is performed by all individuals as they learn about their
   world. For example, science is often practiced by amateurs, who
   typically engage in the observational part of science.

   Workers in corporate research laboratories also practice science,
   although their results are often deemed trade secrets and not published
   in public journals. Corporate and university scientists often
   cooperate, with the university scientists focusing on basic research
   and the corporate scientists applying their findings to a specific
   technology of interest to the company. Although generally this method
   of co-operation has benefited both the advancement of science and the
   corporations, it has also in some cases lead to ethical problems, when
   the results arrived at in the course of research have had a negative
   aspect for the financing corporation. A classical example is the
   history of health research related to smoking.

   Science is also practiced in many other places to achieve specific
   goals. For example:
     * Quality control in manufacturing facilities (for example, a
       microbiologist in a cheese factory ensures that cultures contain
       the proper species of bacteria)
     * Obtaining and processing crime scene evidence ( forensics)
     * Monitoring compliance with environmental laws
     * Performing medical tests to help physicians evaluate the health of
       their patients
     * Investigating the causes of a disaster (such as a bridge collapse
       or airline crash)
     * determine optimal policy for distribution of resources in a society
       for ever state or individual uses

Science and social concerns

   A basic understanding of science and technology has become
   indispensable for anyone living in a developed country, whether in an
   urban or rural area, because technology – a product of science – has
   become an important part of peoples' lives. Science education aims at
   increasing common knowledge about science and widening social
   awareness. The process of learning science begins early in life for
   many people; school students start learning about science as soon as
   they acquire basic language skills, and science is always an essential
   part of curriculum. Science education is also a very vibrant field of
   study and research. Learning science requires learning its language,
   which often differs from colloquial language. For example, the
   terminology of the physical sciences is rich in mathematical jargon,
   and that of biological studies is rich in Latin names. The language
   used to communicate science is rich in words pertaining to concepts,
   phenomena, and processes, which are initially alien to children.

   Due to the growing economic value of technology and industrial
   research, the economy of any modern country depends on its state of
   science and technology. The governments of most developed and
   developing countries therefore dedicate a significant portion of their
   annual budget to scientific and technological research. Many countries
   have an official science policy, and many undertake large-scale
   scientific projects—so-called " big science". The practice of science
   by scientists has undergone remarkable changes in the past few
   centuries. Most scientific research is currently funded by government
   or corporate bodies. These relatively recent economic factors appear to
   increase the incentive for some to engage in fraud in reporting the
   results of scientific research , often termed scientific misconduct.
   Occasional instances of verified scientific misconduct, however, are by
   no means solely modern occurrences. (see also: Junk science) In the
   United States, some have argued that with the politicization of
   science, funding for scientific research has suffered.

Scientific literature

   Science has become so pervasive in modern societies that it is
   generally considered necessary to communicate the achievements, news,
   and dreams of scientists to a wider populace. This need is fulfilled by
   an enormous range of scientific literature. While scientific journals
   communicate and document the results of research carried out in
   universities and various other institutions, science magazines cater to
   the needs of a wider readership. Additionally, science books and
   magazines on science fiction ignite the interest of many more people. A
   significant fraction of literature in science is also available on the
   World Wide Web; most reputable journals and newsmagazines maintain
   their own websites. A growing number of people are being attracted
   towards the vocation of science popularization and science journalism.

Fields of science

   Science is broadly sub-divided into the categories of natural sciences
   and the social sciences. There are also related disciplines that are
   grouped into interdisciplinary and applied sciences, such as
   engineering and health science. Within these categories are specialized
   scientific fields that can include elements of other scientific
   disciplines but often possess their own terminology and body of
   expertise. Examples of diverse scientific specialties include
   linguistics, archaeology, forensic psychology, materials science,
   microbiology, nuclear physics and paleontology.

   The status of social sciences as an empirical science has been a matter
   of debate in the 20th century, see Positivism dispute.

Fields not canonically science

   Many areas of inquiry and certain professions have rebranded themselves
   as sciences for the added aura of seriousness or rigor that the term
   implies. Actuarial science, computer science and library science, for
   example, have some claim to use the title because of their grounding in
   mathematical rigor. Other fields which traffic more in opinion and
   persuasion, such as political science or creation science (very
   different fields, to be sure) have perhaps less justification. However,
   under Karl Popper's definition of science — most importantly
   falsifiability — these topics would not strictly qualify as science. It
   should be noted that Kuhn and other philosophers have provided strong
   arguments against Popper's definition of science, and have questioned
   whether anything truly fits into it.

Scientific institutions

   Learned societies for the communication and promotion of scientific
   thought and experimentation have existed since the Renaissance period.
   The oldest surviving institution is the Accademia dei Lincei in Italy.
   National Academy of Sciences are distinguished institutions that exist
   in a number of countries, beginning with the British Royal Society in
   1660 and the French Académie des Sciences in 1666.

   International scientific organizations, such as the International
   Council for Science, have since been formed to promote co-operation
   between the scientific communities of different nations. More recently,
   influential government agencies have been created to support scientific
   research, including the National Science Foundation in the U.S.

   Other prominent organizations include:
     * In France, Centre national de la recherche scientifique
     * In Germany, Max Planck Society and Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft

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