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Sociology

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Politics and government

   Social interactions and their consequences are the subject of
   sociology. (Image: Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago.)
   Enlarge
   Social interactions and their consequences are the subject of
   sociology. (Image: Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago.)

   Sociology is the study of society and human social action. A
   sociologist studies the social rules and processes that organize people
   in society as individuals and as members of associations, groups, and
   institutions, as well as how these rules and processes develop.
   Sociological research ranges from the analysis of short contacts
   between anonymous individuals on the street to the study of global
   social processes. Most sociologists work in one or more specialties or
   subfields. Additionally, sociology tends to deal with the how and why
   of society, while still looking at the when and where.

   The word sociology comes from the suffix "-logy" which means "study
   of," derived from Greek, and the stem "socio-" which is from the Latin
   word socius, meaning member, friend, or ally, thus referring to people
   in general. It is a social science involving the study of the social
   lives of people, groups, and societies, sometimes defined as the study
   of social interactions. As an academic discipline, sociology is
   relatively young, having evolved in the early 19th century.

   Because sociology is such a broad discipline, it can be difficult to
   define, even for professional sociologists. One useful way to describe
   the discipline is as a cluster of sub-fields that examine different
   dimensions of society. For example, social stratification studies
   inequality and class structure; demography studies changes in a
   population size or type; criminology examines criminal behaviour and
   deviance; political sociology studies government and laws; and the
   sociology of race and sociology of gender examine the social
   construction of race and gender as well as race and gender inequality
   in society. New sociological sub-fields continue to appear—such as
   network analysis—many of which are cross-disciplinary in nature.

   Many sociologists perform research useful outside the academy. Their
   findings aid educators, lawmakers, administrators, developers, business
   leaders and people interested in resolving social problems and
   formulating public policy.

History

   Sociology is a relatively new academic discipline among other social
   sciences including economics, political science, anthropology, history,
   and psychology. The ideas behind it, however, have a long history and
   can trace their origins to a mixture of common human knowledge and
   philosophy.

   Sociology emerged as a scientific discipline in the early 19th century
   as an academic response to the challenge of modernity: as the world was
   becoming smaller and more integrated, people's experience of the world
   was increasingly atomized and dispersed. Sociologists hoped not only to
   understand what held social groups together, but also to develop an
   antidote to social disintegration.

   The word sociology was coined by Auguste Comte in 1838 from Latin
   Socius (companion, associate) and Greek lógos (speech). Comte hoped to
   unify all studies of humankind--including history, psychology and
   economics. His own sociological scheme was typical of the 19th century;
   he believed all human life had passed through the same distinct
   historical stages (theology, metaphysics, positive science) and that,
   if one could grasp this progress, one could prescribe the remedies for
   social ills. Sociology was to be the 'queen of sciences'.
   Herbert Spencer
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   Herbert Spencer

   The first book with the term 'sociology' in its title was The Study of
   Sociology (1874) by the English philosopher Herbert Spencer. In the
   United States, Lester Frank Ward, described by some as the father of
   American sociology, published Dynamic Sociology in 1883 and the
   discipline was taught by its own name for the first time at the
   University of Kansas, Lawrence in 1890 under the course title Elements
   of Sociology (the oldest continuing sociology course in America). The
   Department of History and Sociology at the University of Kansas was
   established in 1891 , , and the first full fledged independent
   university department of sociology was established in 1892 at the
   University of Chicago by Albion W. Small, who in 1895 founded the
   American Journal of Sociology . The first European department of
   sociology was founded in 1895 at the University of Bordeaux by Émile
   Durkheim, founder of L'Année Sociologique (1896). The first sociology
   department to be established in the United Kingdom was at the London
   School of Economics and Political Science (home of the British Journal
   of Sociology) in 1904. In 1919 a sociology department was established
   in Germany at the Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich by Max Weber
   and in 1920 in Poland by Florian Znaniecki.
   Karl Marx
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   Karl Marx

   International cooperation in sociology began in 1893 when René Worms
   founded the small Institut International de Sociologie that was
   eclipsed by the much larger International Sociological Association
   starting in 1949 (ISA). In 1905 the American Sociological Association,
   the world's largest association of professional sociologists, was
   founded.

   Other "classical" theorists of sociology from the late 19th and early
   20th centuries include Karl Marx, Ferdinand Tönnies, Émile Durkheim,
   Vilfredo Pareto, and Max Weber. Like Comte, these figures did not
   consider themselves only "sociologists". Their works addressed
   religion, education, economics, law, psychology, ethics, philosophy,
   and theology, and their theories have been applied in a variety of
   academic disciplines. Their most enduring influence, however, has been
   on sociology, (with the exception of Marx, who is a central figure in
   the field of economics as well) and it is in this field that their
   theories are still considered most applicable.
   Lester Ward
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   Lester Ward

   One shift in the discipline away from scientific explanation had
   philosophical roots. Early theorists' approach to sociology, led by
   Comte, was to treat it in the same manner as natural science, applying
   the same methods and methodology used in the natural sciences to study
   social phenomena. The emphasis on empiricism and the scientific method
   sought to provide an incontestable foundation for any sociological
   claims or findings, and to distinguish sociology from less empirical
   fields like philosophy. This methodological approach, called
   positivism, became a source of contention between sociologists and
   other scientists, and eventually a point of divergence within the field
   itself. Thus, while most sciences evolved from deterministic, Newtonian
   models to probabilistic models which accept and even incorporate
   uncertainty, sociology began to cleave into those who believed in a
   deterministic approach (attributing variation to structure,
   interactions, or other forces) and those who rejected the very
   possibility of explanation and prediction.

   A second push away from scientific explanation was cultural, even
   sociological, itself. As early as the 19th century, positivist and
   naturalist approaches to studying social life were questioned by
   scientists like Wilhelm Dilthey and Heinrich Rickert, who argued that
   the natural world differs from the social world because of unique
   aspects of human society such as meanings, symbols, rules, norms, and
   values. These elements of society both result in and generate human
   cultures. This view was further developed by Max Weber, who introduced
   antipositivism ( humanistic sociology). According to this view, which
   is closely related to antinaturalism, sociological research must
   concentrate on humans' cultural values. This has led to some
   controversy on how one can draw the line between subjective and
   objective research and has also influenced hermeneutical studies.
   Similar disputes, especially in the era of the Internet, have led to
   variations in sociology such as public sociology, which emphasizes the
   usefulness of sociological expertise to abstracted audiences.

Social theory

   Social theory refers to the use of abstract and often complex
   theoretical frameworks to explain and analyze social patterns and macro
   social structures in social life, rather than explaining patterns of
   social life. Social theory always had an uneasy relationship to the
   more classic academic disciplines; many of its key thinkers never held
   a university position. While social theory is sometimes considered a
   branch of sociology, it is inherently interdisciplinary, as it deals
   with multiple fields including anthropology, economics, theology,
   history, philosophy, and many others. First social theories developed
   almost simultaneously with the birth of the sociology science itself.
   Auguste Comte, known as 'father of sociology', also laid the groundwork
   for one of the first social theories - social evolutionism. In the 19th
   century three great, classical theories of social and historical change
   were created: the social evolutionism theory (of which social darwinism
   is a part of), the social cycle theory and the Marxist historical
   materialism theory. Although the majority of 19th century social
   theories are now considered obsolete they have spawned new, modern
   social theories. Modern social theories represent some advanced version
   of the classical theories, like Multilineal theories of evolution (
   neoevolutionism, sociobiology, theory of modernisation, theory of
   post-industrial society) or the general historical sociology and the
   theory of subjectivity and creation of the society.

   Unlike disciplines within the natural sciences -- such as physics or
   chemistry -- social theorists may be less committed to use the
   scientific method to vindicate their theories. Instead, they tackle
   very large-scale social trends and structures using hypotheses that
   cannot be easily proved, except by historical and psychological
   interpretation, which is often the basis of criticism from opponents of
   social theories. Extremely critical theorists, such as
   deconstructionists or postmodernists, may argue that any systematic
   type of research or method is inherently flawed. Many times, however,
   "social theory" is defined without reference to science because the
   social reality it describes is so overarching as to be unprovable. The
   social theories of modernity or anarchy might be two examples of this.

   However, social theories are a major part of the science of sociology.
   Objective science-based research can often provide support for
   explanations given by social theorists. Statistical research grounded
   in the scientific method, for instance, that finds a severe income
   disparity between women and men performing the same occupation can
   complement the underlying premise of the complex social theories of
   feminism or patriarchy. In general, and particularly among adherents to
   pure sociology, social theory has an appeal because it takes the focus
   away from the individual (which is how most humans look at the world)
   and focuses it on the society itself and the social forces which
   control our lives. This sociological insight (or sociological
   imagination) has through the years appealed to students and others
   dissatisfied with the status quo because it carries the assumption that
   societal structures and patterns are either random, arbitrary or
   controlled by specific powerful groups -- thus implying the possibility
   of change. This has a particular appeal to champions of the underdog,
   the dispossessed, and/or those at the bottom of the socioeconomic
   ladder because it implies that their position in society is undeserved
   and/or the result of oppression.

Science and mathematics

   Sociologists study society and social behaviour by examining the groups
   and social institutions people form, as well as various social,
   religious, political, and business organizations. They also study the
   behaviour of, and social interaction among, groups, trace their origin
   and growth, and analyze the influence of group activities on individual
   members. Sociologists are concerned with the characteristics of social
   groups, organizations, and institutions; the ways individuals are
   affected by each other and by the groups to which they belong; and the
   effect of social traits such as sex, age, or race on a person’s daily
   life. The results of sociological research aid educators, lawmakers,
   administrators, and others interested in resolving social problems and
   formulating public policy. Most sociologists work in one or more
   specialties, such as social organization, social stratification, and
   social mobility; racial and ethnic relations; education; family; social
   psychology; urban, rural, political, and comparative sociology; sex
   roles and relationships; demography; gerontology; criminology; and
   sociological practice.

   Although sociology emerged in large part from Comte's conviction that
   sociology eventually would subsume all other areas of scientific
   inquiry, in the end, sociology did not replace the other sciences.
   Instead, sociology came to be identified with the other social sciences
   (psychology, economics, etc.). Today, sociology studies humankind's
   organizations, social institutions and their social interactions,
   largely employing a comparative method. The discipline has concentrated
   particularly on the organization of complex industrial societies.
   Recent sociologists, taking cues from anthropologists, have noted the "
   Western emphasis" of the field. In response, many sociology departments
   around the world are encouraging multi-cultural and multi-national
   studies.

   Today, sociologists research micro- structures that organize society,
   such as race or ethnicity, social class, gender roles, and institutions
   such as the family; social processes that represent deviation from, or
   the breakdown of, these structures, including crime and divorce; and
   micro-processes such as interpersonal interactions and the
   socialization of individuals.

   Sociologists often rely on quantitative methods of social research to
   describe large patterns in social relationships and in order to develop
   models that can help predict social change. Other branches of sociology
   believe that qualitative methods - such as focused interviews, group
   discussions and ethnographic methods - allow for a better understanding
   of social processes. Some sociologists argue for a middle ground that
   sees quantitative and qualitative approaches as complementary. Results
   from one approach can fill gaps in the other approach. For example,
   quantitative methods could describe large or general patterns while
   qualitative approaches could help to understand how individuals
   understand those patterns.

Social research methods

   There are several main methods that sociologists use to gather
   empirical evidence, which include questionnaires or Sociological
   methods survey research, interviews, participant observation,
   statistical research evaluation research and assessment, .

   The problem with all of these approaches is that they are all based on
   what theoretical position the researcher adopts to explain and
   understand the society the researcher sees in front of themselves. If
   one is a functionalist like Émile Durkheim, one is likely to interpret
   everything in terms of large-scale social structures. A symbolic
   interactionist is likely to concentrate on the way people understand
   one another. A researcher who is a Marxist or a neo-Marxist is likely
   to interpret everything through the grid of class struggle and
   economics. Phenomenologists tend to think that there is only the way in
   which people construct their meanings of reality, and nothing else. One
   of the real problems is that many sociologists argue that only one
   theoretical approach is the "right" one, and it is theirs. In practice,
   sociologists often tend to mix and match different approaches and
   methods, since each method produces particular types of data.

   The Internet is of interest for sociologists in three ways: as a tool
   for research, for example, in using online questionnaires instead of
   paper ones, as a discussion platform, and as a research topic.
   Sociology of the Internet in the last sense includes analysis of online
   communities (e.g. as found in newsgroups), virtual communities and
   virtual worlds, organisational change catalysed through new media like
   the Internet, and societal change at-large in the transformation from
   industrial to informational society (or to information society).

Other social sciences

   In the early 20th century, sociologists and psychologists who conducted
   research in industrial societies contributed to the development of
   anthropology. Anthropologists also conducted research in industrial
   societies. Today sociology and anthropology are better contrasted
   according to different theoretical concerns and methods rather than
   objects of study.

   Sociobiology is a relatively new field to branch from both the
   sociology and biology disciplines. Although the field once rapidly
   gained acceptance, it has remained highly controversial as it attempts
   to find ways in which social behavior and structures can be explained
   by evolutionary and biological processes. Sociobiologists are often
   criticized for depending too greatly on the effects of genes in
   defining behaviour. Sociobiologists often respond, however, by citing a
   complex relationship between nature and nurture. In this regard,
   sociobiology is closely related to physical anthropology, zoology,
   evolutionary psychology, human behavioural ecology, and dual
   inheritance theory. Nonetheless, for most in the discipline, its ideas
   are unacceptable.

   Sociology has some links with social psychology, but the former is more
   interested in social structures and the latter in social behaviors. A
   distinction should be made between these and forensic studies within
   these disciplines, particularly where anatomy is involved. These latter
   studies might be better named as Forensic psychology. As shown by the
   work of Marx and others, economics has influenced sociological
   theories.

   Retrieved from " http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology"
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