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Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: General history

   There lies Peru with its riches;
   Here, Panama and its poverty.
   Choose, each man, what best becomes a brave Castilian.
   — Francisco Pizarro
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   Peruvian-Ecuadorian Territorial Dispute

   In the 16th century, Spaniards arrived in the Andean region of South
   America and over the course of only a few decades, succeeded in
   toppling the Tawantinsuyo, which had spanned most of the Andean region
   and surrounding lowlands from the south of modern-day Colombia to the
   north of Chile and Argentina. This article examines how the
   Conquistadors accomplished this task and describes the events of the
   twilight years of the Inca empire.

   Francisco Pizarro and his brothers were attracted by the news of a rich
   and fabulous kingdom. In 1531, they arrived to this country, which they
   called Peru. According to Porras Barrenechea, Peru is not a Quechuan
   nor Caribbean word, but Indo-Hispanic or Hybrid. At that moment, the
   Inca Empire was sunk in a five years war between two princes: Huáscar
   and Atahualpa. Taking advantage of this contingency, Pizarro carried
   out a “ coup d’état”. On November 16, 1532, while the natives were in a
   celebration in Cajamarca, the Spanish Pizarro took the Inca Atahualpa
   prisoner by surprise, causing a great consternation between the natives
   and conditioning the future course of the fight.

   During a certain period of time, Pizarro maintained the authority of
   the Inca, recognizing Atahualpa as the Inca at that moment. But the
   conqueror’s abuses made this fiction disappeared. The Spanish
   domination was consolidating itself as the successive indigenous
   rebellions were continuously bloodily repressed.

   The struggle to have the power, faced Pizarro and Diego de Almagro. An
   interminable civil war was originated. Despite of this, the Spaniards
   did not neglect the colonizing process. Its more significant act was
   the foundation of Lima in January, 1535 , from which the political and
   administrative institutions were organized. The necessity of
   consolidating a Spanish Real Authority on these territories, lead to
   the creation of a Real Audiencia (Royal Audience). In 1542, the Spanish
   created the Viceroyalty of New Castilla, that shortly after would be
   called Viceroyalty of Peru. Nevertheless, the Viceroyalty of Peru was
   not organized until the arrival of the Viceroy Francisco de Toledo in
   1572. Toledo ended the indigenous state of Vilcabamba, executing the
   Inca Tupac Amaru. He also promoted the economic development from the
   commercial monopoly and the mineral extraction, mainly, from
   argentiferous mines of Potosí. He took advantage of the Inca
   institution called “ mita” to put the native communities under a cruel
   economic enslavement.

   The Viceroyalty of Peru became the richest and powerful Spanish
   Viceroyalty of America in the XVIII century. The creation of the
   Viceroyalties of New Granada and Rio de la Plata (at the expense of its
   territory), the commerce exemptions that moved the commercial centre
   from Lima to Caracas and Buenos Aires, and the fall of the mining and
   textile production determined the progressive decay of the Viceroyalty
   of Peru. These events created a favorable climate so that the
   emancipating ideas had an effect on the Creoles.
   Spanish colonization of the Americas
   History of the conquest

   Inter caetera
   Alaska
   California
   Guatemala
   Mexico
   Peru
   Yucatán
   Conquistadors

   Vasco Núñez de Balboa
   Francisco Vásquez de Coronado
   Hernán Cortés
   Juan Ponce de León
   Francisco de Montejo
   Francisco Pizarro
   Diego de Almagro
   Hernando de Soto
   Sebastián de Belalcázar
   Pedro de Valdivia

Background

   By the 16th century, the Inca empire had seen many years of strong
   leadership. Huayna Capac, the Inca in power when Europeans began to
   arrive in South America, was respected and admired throughout the
   empire.

   Both Huayna Capac and his designated heir died, most likely of
   smallpox. The ensuing war of succession between the Panakas (royal
   lines) weakened the Inca leadership and contributed to its speedy
   downfall. At the centre of the conflict were the two main contenders,
   Huascar and Atahualpa, who were both sons of Huayna Capac.

   Huascar may have been proclaimed the new emperor, though no records
   remain to confirm that he was indeed the intended heir. Regarded as
   ugly, bad-mannered and half-mad, Huascar was known for his cruelty and
   came close to murdering his sister and mother. Nonetheless, he was
   well-liked in the southern regions of the empire. Atahualpa, on the
   other hand, was chosen to govern the northern territory known as the
   Kingdom of Quito, which was located in modern-day Ecuador and southern
   Colombia.

   After a few years of relative peace, war broke out between the two
   brothers. It is estimated that 100,000 people were killed in this
   bloodthirsty dispute known as the War of the Two Brothers. After many
   struggles, Atahualpa finally defeated Huascar. Atahualpa himself
   teetered towards insanity and treated the losers terribly. Many had
   stones dropped on their backs to cripple them, fetuses were ripped from
   wombs and bodies were stuck on spikes for display, and nearly 1,500
   members of the royal family were cut up in front of Huascar, including
   his own children.

   After sending Huascar to prison, Atahualpa took the throne. He paid a
   terrible price for his cruelty, as it had contributed to the weakening
   of the empire. It was at this critical moment in the empire's history
   that the Spanish conquistadors under Francisco Pizarro arrived and
   after three long expeditions had already established the first Spanish
   settlement in northern Peru, calling it San Miguel de Piura on July of
   1532. Pizarro sent his fellow conquistador, Hernando de Soto, to
   explore the land and soon returned with an envoy from the emperor
   Atahualpa, bringing presents and an invitation for a meeting with the
   Spanish.

The Spanish conquest

   After his victory over his brother, Atahualpa began his southward march
   from Quito to claim the Inca throne in Cusco. Atahualpa had been
   hearing tales of "white bearded men" approaching his territory. Some
   accounts say that Atahualpa sent messengers with presents to Pizarro
   and his men to induce them to leave, and others contend that it was
   Pizarro who sent a messenger to Atahualpa requesting a meeting. Most
   accounts agree, however, that Atahualpa met with Pizarro voluntarily.

   Atahualpa and his forces met with the Spaniards at Cajamarca on the
   evening of November 15th. Rather than meeting with Atahualpa himself,
   Pizarro sent Hernando de Soto, friar Vincente de Valverde and native
   interpreter Felipillo to speak with the Inca leader.

   De Soto spoke with Atahualpa for a while and told them that they were
   emissaries from King Charles I of Spain. They also said they came in
   peace and were prepared to serve him against his enemies. Atahualpa
   nearly scoffed at that as he believed their behaviour was not what one
   would expect of embassies and emissaries. In fact he knew of their
   earlier atrocities against the nuns dedicated to serve the god Inti in
   his temple. He demanded a full accounting of their behaviour in his
   country and an apology from their leader Pizarro. He did however agree
   to meet with them in the city the next day.

   De Soto noticed the sight of his horses were unnerving some of the
   Inca's attendants so with an incredible display of horsemanship, he
   performed the tricks an experienced horseman would do. He stopped short
   of the Inca with the horse just inches away from Atahualpa. While this
   frightened the attendants, the Inca was unblinking. This told the
   Spaniards that they were not dealing with a fearful one like Moctezuma
   II in Mexico and it gave them even more fear the night of the 15th and
   early on the 16th. However it gave Pizarro the idea he needed to win
   Peru.

   The next morning, Pizarro had his men strategically placed around the
   square where they were to meet. When Atahualpa came with 4,000 unarmed
   soldiers and attendant, Friar Valverde spoke with him about the Spanish
   presence in his lands as well as engaged in a poorly executed attempt
   to explain to him the precepts of the Catholic religion, an attempt
   which was certainly not helped by an unskilled translator. After doing
   so, he offered Atahualpa a Bible in the expectation that he and his men
   would immediately convert to Christianity or be considered an enemy of
   the Church and of Spain by the Spanish Crown.
   The Inca-Spanish confrontation in the Battle of Cajamarca left
   thousands of natives dead
   Enlarge
   The Inca-Spanish confrontation in the Battle of Cajamarca left
   thousands of natives dead

   Atahualpa stated that he was no one's vassal and asked where they got
   their authority to do this. A popular but widely disputed legend states
   that Valverde pointed to the Book saying that it contained God's word
   and handed it over to Atahualpa. Supposedly, when the Inca was
   presented with the Book he shook it close to his ear and asked "Why
   doesn't it speak to me?" Having literally never seen a book before,
   then threw the unfamiliar object aside. Supposedly, this is what gave
   the Spanish a reason to attack, starting the Battle of Cajamarca on
   November 16, 1532. Pizarro executed Atahualpa's 12 man honour guard and
   took the Inca captive at the so-called ransom room. The fact that a
   small number of Spanish troops were able to defeat the thousands of
   Inca warriors at Cajamarca is attributable to many factors, among them
   that the Spanish had horses, and the fact that the Inca Empire had a
   highly centralized chain of command, which meant that since the Spanish
   held the emperor hostage, the empire was effectively paralyzed for a
   time. The Spanish weapons included heavy metal swords and shields, some
   had guns and perhaps cannons. The Inca's weapons were by far inferior
   to those of the Spaniards. The Inca used heavy cloth, wood, and leather
   for their armor. The Inca weapons were made of sharpened stones and
   wood that they used as spears as well as bows and arrows. There were
   many more Incas than Spaniards; this added to the Inca's inability to
   comprehend the threat of the Spanish. Due to disease, internal unrest,
   and the capture of their emperor, as well as the aforementioned
   reasons, the Incas were eventually defeated. Some of the same factors
   contributed to the success of similar, small Spanish bands against the
   Aztecs and other American civilizations.

   During Atahualpa's captivity, the Spanish, although greatly
   outnumbered, forced him to order his generals to back down by
   threatening to kill him if he did not. In exchange for his release,
   Atahualpa offered to fill a large room with gold and promised the
   Spanish twice that amount in silver. While Pizarro ostensibly accepted
   the offer and allowed the gold to pile up, he had no intention of
   releasing the Inca; he needed Atahualpa's influence over his generals
   and the people in order to maintain the peace.

   Atahualpa feared that if Huascar came into contact with the Spanish, he
   would be so useful to them that Pizarro would no longer need Atahualpa
   and have him killed. To avoid this, Atahualpa ordered Huascar's
   execution, which took place not far from Cajamarca.

   In the end, this tactic was futile. Months passed, and as it became
   clear to Atahualpa that the Spanish did not intend to free him, he
   began to call on his generals to launch an attack on the Spanish. Still
   outnumbered and fearing an imminent attack from the Inca general
   Rumiñahui, the Spanish began to see Atahualpa as too much of a
   liability. He was charged with 12 crimes, the most grave being
   attempting to revolt against the Spanish, practicing idolatry and
   murdering his brother, Huascar. He was found guilty of all 12 charges
   and garroted on August 29, 1533.

Rebellion and reconquest

   The situation went quickly downhill. As things began to fall apart,
   many parts of the Inca Empire revolted, some of them joining with the
   Spanish against their own rulers.

   After Atahualpa's execution, Pizarro installed Atahualpa's brother,
   Tupac Huallpa, as a puppet Inca ruler, but he soon died unexpectedly,
   leaving Manco Inca Yupanqui in power. He began his rule as an ally of
   the Spanish and was respected in the southern regions of the empire,
   but there was still much unrest in the north near Quito where
   Atahualpa’s generals were amassing troops. Atahulapa's death meant that
   there was no hostage left to deter the these northern armies from
   attacking the invaders. Led by Atahualpa’s generals Rumiñahui,
   Zope-Zupahua and Quisquis, the native armies inflicted considerable
   damage on the Spanish. In the end, however, the Spanish succeeded in
   re-capturing Quito, effectively ending any organized rebellion in the
   north of the empire.

   Manco Inca initially had good relations with Francisco Pizarro and
   several other Spanish conquistadors. However, in 1535 he was left in
   Cusco under the control of Pizarro’s cousins Juan and Gonzalo, who so
   mistreated Manco Inca that he ultimately rebelled. Under the pretense
   of performing religious ceremonies in the nearby Yucay valley, Manco
   was able to escape Cusco.

   Diego de Almagro, originally one of Francisco Pizarro's party, returned
   from his exploration of Chile, disappointed in not finding any wealth
   similar to that of Peru. King Charles I of Spain of Spain (Holy Roman
   Emperor Charles V) had awarded the city of Cuzco to Pizarro, but
   Almagro attempted to claim the city nonetheless. Manco Inca hoped to
   use the disagreement between Almagro and Pizarro to his advantage and
   organized the recapture of Cusco in 1536. However, Inca revolts such as
   these were of a small-scale and short-lived, and the Incas leadership
   did not have the full support of all its subject peoples. Spanish
   reinforcements arrived and took the city once again.

   After the Spanish regained control of Cuzco, Manco Inca and his armies
   retreated to the fortress at Ollantaytambo. When it became clear that
   they were outnumbered and defeat was imminent, they retreated further
   to the mountainous region of Vilcabamba, where the Manco Inca continued
   to hold some power for several more decades. His son, Túpac Amaru, was
   the last Inca. After deadly confrontantions, he was murdered by the
   Spanish in 1572.

   The Spaniards destroyed almost every Inca building in Cuzco, built a
   Spanish city over the old foundations, and proceeded to colonize and
   exploit the former empire.

   In total, the conquest took about forty years to complete. Many Inca
   attempts to regain the empire had occurred, but none had been
   successful. Thus the Spanish conquest was achieved through relentless
   force, zealous fanatism and deceit aided by factors like smallpox and a
   great communication and cultural devide. The Spaniards displaced most
   of the Incan past and imposed the Spanish culture on the native
   population.

In fiction

   The conquest of the Incas is dramatized in Peter Shaffer's play The
   Royal Hunt of the Sun. In the play, Pizarro, Atahualpa, Valverde and
   other historical figures appear as characters.

   The conquest is also used as a starting point for the Matthew Reilly
   novel Temple, where the siege of Cusco is used. Many historical figures
   are mentioned, especially with Pizarro who is mentioned as the pursuer
   of the protagonist.

Quotes

     * "When has it ever happened, either in ancient or modern times, that
       such amazing exploits have been achieved? Over so many climes,
       across so many seas, over such distances by land, to subdue the
       unseen and unknown? Whose deeds can be compared with those of
       Spain? Not even the ancient Greeks and Romans." - Francisco Xerez,
       Pizarro's secretary, in his "Report on the Discovery of Peru".

     * "When I set out to write for the people of today and of the future,
       about the conquest and discovery that our Spaniards made here in
       Peru, I could not but reflect that I was dealing with the greatest
       matters one could possibly write about in all of creation as far as
       secular history goes. Where have men ever seen the things they have
       seen here? And to think that God should have permitted something so
       great to remain hidden from the world for so long in history,
       unknown to men, and then let it be found, discovered and won all in
       our own time!" - Chronicle of Peru by conquistador-turned-historian
       Pedro de Cieza de Leon.

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