   #copyright

Syria

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Countries; Middle Eastern
Countries

   SOS Children works in Syria. For more information see SOS Children in
   Syria, Africa
   الجمهورية العربية السورية
   Al-Ǧumhūriyyah al-ʿArabiyyah as-Sūriyyah
   Syrian Arab Republic

   Flag of Syria Coat of arms of Syria
   Flag          Coat of arms
   Motto: none
   Anthem: Homat el Diyar
   "Guardians of the Homeland"
   Location of Syria
   Capital
   (and largest city) Damascus
   33°30′N 36°18′E
   Official languages Arabic
   Government Presidential republic
    - President Bashar al-Assad
    - Prime Minister Muhammad Naji al-Otari
   Independence from France
    - Declared (1) September 1936^1
    - Declared (2) January 1, 1944
    - Recognized April 17, 1946
   Area
    - Total 185,180 km² ( 88th)
   71,479 sq mi
    - Water (%) 0.06
   Population
    - July 2005 estimate 19,043,000 ( 55th)
    - Density 103/km² ( 96th)
   267/sq mi
   GDP ( PPP) 2005 estimate
    - Total $71.74 billion ( 65th)
    - Per capita $5,348 ( 101st)
   HDI  (2003) 0.721 (medium) ( 106th)
   Currency Syrian pound ( SYP)
   Time zone EET ( UTC+2)
    - Summer ( DST) EEST ( UTC+3)
   Internet TLD .sy
   Calling code +963
   ^1 The Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence (1936), not ratified by
   France.

   Syria (Arabic: سوريا ‎or, since 2005, سورية ), officially the Syrian
   Arab Republic (Arabic: الجمهورية العربية السورية ), is a country in the
   Middle East. It borders Lebanon to the west, Israel to the southwest,
   Jordan to the south, Iraq to the east, and Turkey to the north. Since
   the Six-Day War in 1967, Israel has occupied the Golan Heights in the
   southwest of the country; a dispute with Turkey over the Hatay Province
   has subsided. Historically, Syria has often been taken to include the
   territories of Lebanon, Israel and the Palestinian Territories, and
   parts of Jordan, but excluding the Jazira region in the north-east of
   the modern Syrian state. In this historic sense, the region is also
   known as Greater Syria or by the Arabic name Bilad al-Sham (بلاد الشام
   ).

Etymology

   The name Syria comes from the ancient Greek name for the land of Aram
   at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea between Egypt and Arabia to
   the south and Cilicia to the north, stretching inland to include
   Mesopotamia, and having an uncertain border to the northeast that Pliny
   the Elder describes as including from west to east Commagene, Sophene,
   and Adiabene, "formerly known as Assyria" ( N.H. 5.66). By Pliny's
   time, however, this larger Syria had been divided into a number of
   provinces under the Roman Empire (but politically independent from each
   other): Judaea (or " Judea" and later renamed Palestina in AD 135—the
   region corresponding to the modern states of Israel and Jordan and the
   Palestinian territories) in the extreme southwest, Phoenicia
   corresponding to Lebanon, with Damascena to the inland side of
   Phoenicia, Coele-Syria (or "Hollow Syria") south of the Eleutheris
   river, and Mesopotamia.

History

   Map of Syria
   Enlarge
   Map of Syria

Ancient Syria

   Civilization in Syria dates back to at least the fourth millennium BCE.
   Many sites in Syria evoke the beginnings of recorded human history.

   Archaeologists have demonstrated that Syria was the centre of one of
   the most ancient civilizations on earth. Around the excavated city of
   Ebla in north-eastern Syria, discovered in 1975, a great Semitic empire
   spread from the Red Sea north to Turkey and east to Mesopotamia from
   2500 to 2400 BCE. Scholars believe the language of Ebla to be the
   oldest recorded Semitic language. At Ebla ( Tel Merdikh), a royal
   palace was discovered containing one of the largest and most
   comprehensive archives of the ancient world. Ebla's archive consists of
   more than 17,000 clay tablets dealing with matters of industry,
   diplomacy, trade, art and agriculture. Ebla became world-famous for two
   industries: the manufacture of finely carved wood, inlaid with ivory
   and mother of pearls; and of silk cloth of gold. Today these industries
   still prosper, with Syrian brocade and mosaics fashioned according to
   the artisan tradition of ancient Ebla.
   Clay tablet from Ebla's archive.
   Enlarge
   Clay tablet from Ebla's archive.

   Other notable cities excavated include Mari, Ugarit and Dura Europos.
   At Mari (Tel Hariri) numerous palaces, temples and murals were found
   that reflect advanced cultural and commercial activity. The kingdom of
   Ugarit ( Ras Shamra) offered humankind its first alphabet.

   Syria was occupied successively by Canaanites, Hebrews, Arameans,
   Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, Armenians, Romans,
   Nabataeans, Byzantines, Arabs, and, in part, Crusaders before finally
   coming under the control of the Ottoman Turks. Syria is significant in
   the history of Christianity; Paul was converted on the Road to Damascus
   and joined the first organized Christian Church in Antioch in ancient
   Syria (now in Turkey), from which he left on many of his missionary
   journeys.

Islamic Era

   Damascus, a city that has been inhabited as early as 3,000 BC, is known
   to be one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world
   (along with Acoma and Jericho). It came under Muslim rule in AD 636.
   Immediately thereafter, the city's power and prestige reached its peak,
   and it became the capital of the Umayyad Empire, which extended from
   Spain to the borders of Central Asia from AD 661 to AD 750. Syria acted
   as cultural hub that took in influences from many sources and sent them
   out to other parts of the empire and Damascus achieved a glory
   unrivaled among cities of the eighth century. The Umayyads were
   overthrown by the Abbasid dynasty in AD 750. Abbasid caliphate was
   established at Baghdad, Iraq.

   Damascus became a provincial capital of the Mameluke Empire around
   1260. It was largely destroyed in 1400 by Tamerlane, the Mongol
   conqueror, who removed many of its craftsmen to Samarkand. Rebuilt, it
   continued to serve as a capital until 1516. In 1517, it fell under
   Ottoman rule. The Ottomans remained for the next four hundred years,
   except for a brief occupation by Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt from 1832 to
   1840.

French mandate

   The National Bloc signing the Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence in
   Paris in 1936. From left to right: Saadallah al-Jabiri, Jamil Mardam
   Bey, Hashim al-Atassi (signing), and French Prime Minister Léon Blum.
   Enlarge
   The National Bloc signing the Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence in
   Paris in 1936. From left to right: Saadallah al-Jabiri, Jamil Mardam
   Bey, Hashim al-Atassi (signing), and French Prime Minister Léon Blum.

   Ottoman control ended when the forces of the Arab revolt entered
   Damascus in 1918 towards the end of the First World War. An independent
   Arab Kingdom of Syria was established under King Faisal of the
   Hashemite family, who later became King of Iraq. However, his rule over
   Syria ended in July 1920 when French forces entered Syria to impose
   their League of Nations mandate. Following the Battle of Maysalun of 23
   July between the Syrian army under Yusuf al-Azmeh and the French, the
   French army entered Damascus and Faisal was exiled. The period of the
   Mandate was marked by increasing nationalist sentiment and a number of
   brutally repressed revolts, but also by infrastructural modernisation
   and economic development.

   With the fall of France in 1940, Syria came under the control of the
   Vichy Government until the United Kingdom and Free French occupied the
   country in July 1941. Continuing pressure from Syrian nationalist
   groups forced the French to evacuate their troops in April 1946,
   leaving the country in the hands of a republican government that had
   been formed during the mandate.

Independence

   Shukri al Quwatli, Syria's first post-independence President.
   Enlarge
   Shukri al Quwatli, Syria's first post-independence President.

   Syria first negotiated a treaty of independence with France in
   September of 1936. Hashim al-Atassi was the first president to be
   elected under a post-French minded constitution, effectively the first
   incarnation of the modern republic of Syria. However, France reneged on
   the treaty and refused to ratify it, and continued its presence in
   Syria until 1946. Shukri al-Quwatli was elected President when Syria
   was granted independence from Vichy France jointly with Lebanon in
   1943. Although rapid economic development followed the second
   declaration of independence of April 17, 1946, Syrian politics from
   independence through the late 1960s were marked by upheaval.

Syrian army’s role in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War

   The Syrian army played a limited role in the war. Despite Syria’s
   initial losses, its forces quickly were able to occupy a thin strip of
   Palestinian land running the length of its border during the first two
   months of the war. Much of this territory was easily taken for the
   border had been originally drawn by the British in 1923 with water in
   mind, not its defense. The Palestine-Syrian border was drawn so that
   all of the Jordan River, Lake Tiberius, and the Hula swamp would be
   included in Palestinian territory. To ensure the Syrians would not have
   access to the water, the British had also included a strip of land on
   the Syrian side: 10-meters wide at Lake Tiberius and ranging from 50 to
   400 meters wide along the Jordan River right up to Hula. Palestine also
   received a thin salient of land stretching east between the Syrian and
   Jordanian border along the Yarmouk River, the Jordan’s largest
   tributary, out to the town of al-Hamma – today’s Hamat-Gader. All of
   this territory east of the Jordan River and Lake Tiberius was
   indefensible and easily taken by Syrian troops. The Syrian army also
   managed to cross the Jordan River just south of Lake Hula to occupy
   Kibbutz Mishmar Hayarden and defend it against several Israeli
   counter-attacks.

   Syrian forces also established a foothold in the extreme northeastern
   corner of Palestine, just east of the Jewish settlement of Dan. Thus,
   Syria occupied three distinct enclaves within Palestine in the
   northern, central, and southern regions of the 1923 border. These three
   enclaves added to the thin strip of land stretching along the eastern
   perimeter of the Jordan and Tiberius added up to 66.5 square kilometers
   of land. It would become part of the demilitarized zone following the
   1949 armistice signed between Syria and Israel and remains contested
   between the two sides to this day.

   Other than the two offensive operations to grab villages across the
   Jordan River, the Syrian army remained largely inactive during the 1948
   war. The Arab Liberation Army (ALA) survived in the northern Galilee
   until November 1948, when it was driven into Lebanon by Jewish forces
   that were moved up from the south. The Syrian government persisted in
   denying assistance to the ALA during the summer of 1948, effectively
   “condemning them to death,” in the words of `Adil Arslan.

Military coups

   A series of military coups, begun in 1949, undermined civilian rule and
   led to army colonel Adib Shishakli's seizure of power in December 1949.
   He made himself President in 1951 and dissolved parliament.^[
   neutrality disputed]

Shishakli and the Palestine Problem

   Both the United States and Britain took considerable interest in Adib
   Shishakli. The British hoped to draw him into their plans for Middle
   East Defence. The Americans offered him considerable foreign aid in the
   hope that he would accept a deal to end the conflict in Palestine.
   During the first four years following the 1948 Arab-Israeli war, the
   United States attempted to solve the Arab-Israeli conflict by settling
   Palestinian refugees in Syria. At the height of U.S.-Syrian
   negotiations during the summer of 1952, the U.S. contemplated paying
   the Syrian government $400,000,000 dollars in exchange for settling up
   to 500,000 Palestinians in the fertile plains of the Jazira that lie
   between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Syria's North-east. Leftist
   forces in Syria, spearheaded by Akram Hourani's Arab Socialist Party
   and the Ba'ath Party, were vociferous opponents of such a deal, which
   they claimed was nothing but a sell out of the Palestinian right of
   return. With the unification of Hourani's Socialist Party with the
   Ba'ath in December 1952 and their vain attempt to overthrow the Syrian
   regime, Shishakli was forced to shelve any notion of accepting either a
   western defense alliance or settling Palestinian refugees in Syria.

Civilian rule: 1954–1958

   After the overthrow of President Shishakli in a 1954 coup, continued
   political maneuvering supported by competing factions in the military
   eventually brought Arab nationalist and socialist elements to power.

   Syria's political instability during the years following the 1954 coup,
   the parallelism of Syrian and Egyptian policies, and the appeal of
   Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser's leadership in the wake of the
   1956 Suez crisis created support in Syria for union with Egypt. On
   February 1, 1958, the two countries merged to create the United Arab
   Republic, and all Syrian political parties ceased overt activities.

United Arab Republic

   The union was not a success, however. Following a military coup on
   September 28, 1961, Syria seceded, reestablishing itself as the Syrian
   Arab Republic. Instability characterized the next 18 months, with
   various coups culminating on March 8, 1963, in the installation by
   leftist Syrian Army officers of the National Council of the
   Revolutionary Command (NCRC), a group of military and civilian
   officials who assumed control of all executive and legislative
   authority. The takeover was engineered by members of the Arab Socialist
   Resurrection Party ( Ba'ath Party), which had been active in Syria and
   other Arab countries since the late 1940s. The new cabinet was
   dominated by Ba'ath members.

Ba'ath takeover

   The Ba'ath takeover in Syria followed a Ba'ath coup in Iraq the
   previous month. The new Syrian Government explored the possibility of
   federation with Egypt and Ba'ath–controlled Iraq. An agreement was
   concluded in Cairo on April 17, 1963, for a referendum on unity to be
   held in September 1963. However, serious disagreements among the
   parties soon developed, and the tripartite federation failed to
   materialize. Thereafter, the Ba'ath regimes in Syria and Iraq began to
   work for bilateral unity. These plans floundered in November 1963, when
   the Ba'ath regime in Iraq was overthrown. In May 1964, President Amin
   Hafiz of the NCRC promulgated a provisional constitution providing for
   a National Council of the Revolution (NCR), an appointed legislature
   composed of representatives of mass organizations — labor, peasant, and
   professional unions —, a presidential council, in which executive power
   was vested, and a cabinet. On February 23, 1966, a group of army
   officers carried out a successful, intra-party coup, imprisoned
   President Hafiz, dissolved the cabinet and the NCR, abrogated the
   provisional constitution, and designated a regionalist, civilian Ba'ath
   government. The coup leaders described it as a "rectification" of
   Ba'ath Party principles. The defeat of the Syrians and Egyptians in the
   June 1967 war with Israel weakened the radical socialist regime
   established by the 1966 coup. Israel had captured the Golan Heights
   from Syria and the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt. Conflict developed
   between a moderate military wing and a more extremist civilian wing of
   the Ba'ath Party. The 1970 retreat of Syrian forces sent to aid the PLO
   during the Black September hostilities with Jordan reflected this
   political disagreement within the ruling Ba'ath leadership. On November
   13, 1970, Minister of Defense Hafez al-Assad effected a bloodless
   military coup called the Corrective Revolution, ousting the civilian
   party leadership and assuming the role of prime minister.

1970–2000

Consolidation of power

   Upon assuming power, Hafez al-Assad moved quickly to create an
   organizational infrastructure for his government and to consolidate
   control. The Provisional Regional Command of Assad's Arab Ba'ath
   Socialist Party nominated a 173-member legislature, the People's
   Council, in which the Ba'ath Party took 87 seats. The remaining seats
   were divided among "popular organizations" and other minor parties. In
   March 1971, the party held its regional congress and elected a new
   21-member Regional Command headed by Assad. In the same month, a
   national referendum was held to confirm Assad as President for a 7-year
   term. In March 1972, to broaden the base of his government, Assad
   formed the National Progressive Front, a coalition of parties led by
   the Ba'ath Party, and elections were held to establish local councils
   in each of Syria's 14 governorates. In March 1973, a new Syrian
   constitution went into effect followed shortly thereafter by
   parliamentary elections for the People's Council, the first such
   elections since 1962.

October War

   Later in 1973, the October War (or Yom Kippur War) broke out and "Syria
   mounted air attacks and heavy artillery shelling, and moved three
   divisions with some 1,400 tanks into the" Golan Heights to try and
   reclaim them from Israel. Despite some initial successes, Syria's
   military was once again defeated by the IDF. At the end of the Yom
   Kippur war Israel still held the military advantage over Syria.
   Subsequent shuttle negotiations by Henry Kissinger resulted in Syria
   regaining control of part of the Golan, which the government portrayed
   as proof of victory. Since 1974, the Syrian-Israeli front has been
   quiet, with few disturbances of the cease-fire.

Involvement in Lebanon

   In early 1976, Syrian troops entered Lebanon at the request of the
   Lebanese government to stop the civil war. Syria at first entered on
   the side of the Maronites. Syria sent troops that later became the main
   core of the Arab Deterrent Force (ADF) established by the Arab League
   in October 1976. Syria brought the warring factions together in the
   Taif Agreement to end the civil war. The civil war was declared over on
   October 13, 1990. Syria helped the Lebanese government to reestablish
   control over much of the country. In April 26, 2005, Syria withdrew all
   of its troops from Lebanon, after the assassination of the former
   Lebanese Prime Minister Rafik Al-Hariri.

   About one million Syrian workers came into Lebanon after the civil war
   ended, to find employment and pursue business opportunities. In 1994,
   the Lebanese government controversially granted citizenship to over
   200,000 Syrians resident in the country (see Demographics of Lebanon).

Opposition and repression

   The authoritarian regime was not without its critics, though most were
   quickly dealt with. A serious challenge arose in the late 1970s,
   however, from Sunni Muslims called the Muslim Brotherhood who reject
   the basic values of the secular Ba'ath program and object to rule by
   the Alawis, whom they consider heretical. From 1976 until its
   suppression in 1982, the Muslim Brotherhood led an armed insurgency
   against the regime. In response to an attempted uprising by the
   brotherhood in February 1982, the government crushed the opposition
   centered in the city of Hama, leveling parts of the city with artillery
   fire and causing many thousands of dead and wounded. Since then, public
   manifestations of anti-regime activity have been very limited. A
   challenge from within the regime came in 1984, when Hafez was
   hospitalized after a heart attack. His brother Rifaat then attempted to
   seize power using internal security forces under his control. Despite
   his poor health, Hafez managed to assert control and sent Rifaat into
   exile.

Gulf War

   Syria's 1991 participation in the U.S.-led multinational coalition
   aligned against Saddam Hussein marked a dramatic watershed in Syria's
   relations both with other Arab states and with the West. Syria
   participated in the multilateral Middle East Peace Conference in Madrid
   in October 1991, and during the 1990s engaged in direct, face-to-face
   negotiations with Israel. These negotiations failed, and there have
   been no further Syrian-Israeli talks since President Hafez Al-Assad's
   meeting with then US President Bill Clinton in Geneva in March 2000.

Death and succession of Hafez al-Assad

   Hafez Al-Assad died on June 10, 2000, after thirty years in power.
   Within a few hours following Al-Assad's death, the Parliament amended
   the constitution, reducing the mandatory minimum age of the President
   from 40 to 34 years old, which allowed his son, Bashar al-Assad legally
   to be eligible for nomination by the ruling Ba'ath party. On July 10,
   2000, Bashar Al-Assad was elected President by referendum in which he
   ran unopposed, garnering 97.29% of the vote.

2000–2004

   In his inauguration speech delivered at the People's Council on July
   17, 2000, Bashar Al-Assad promised political and democratic reform.
   Human rights activists and other civil society advocates, as well as
   some parliamentarians, became more outspoken during a period referred
   to as "Damascus Spring" (July 2000 to February 2001). Enthusiasm faded
   quickly as the government cracked down on civil forums and reform
   activists, but there was still a notable liberalization compared to the
   totalitarianism of Hafez. The lifting of bans on Internet access,
   mobile telephones and the spread of computer technology has had a great
   impact on the previously isolated Syrian society, and the secret
   police's presence in society has been eased. Today there exists a small
   but growing number of dissident intellectuals, as well as several
   formerly illegal opposition parties. However, government power rests
   firmly in the hands of the Ba'ath, and police surveillance and
   occasional crackdowns keeps opposition activities limited.

   In the aftermath of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, the
   Syrian government began cooperation with U.S. in the global war against
   terrorism. However, Syria opposed the Iraq war in March 2003, and
   bilateral relations with the U.S. swiftly deteriorated. At the moment
   there are negotiations on an Association Agreement between Syria and
   the European Union which would liberalize mutual trade. Syria is
   required to make certain political and economic reforms in order for
   this process to come into effect.

Events since 2004

   On February 14, 2005, Rafik Hariri, the former Prime Minister of
   Lebanon, was killed by a car bomb. Many members of the Lebanese
   opposition and international observers alleged that Hariri was
   assassinated by Syria. Popular protests soon arose, composed primarily
   of Christians, Druze and Sunni Muslims, demanding the resignation of
   the pro-Syria government led by Omar Karami, as well as the withdrawal
   of all Syrian troops and intelligence operatives. On February 28, 2005,
   Karami's government resigned, although he was reappointed a few days
   later. On March 5, 2005, after intense international pressure,
   president Bashar al-Assad of Syria made a speech before the Syrian
   Parliament, where he announced that Syria would complete a full
   withdrawal from Lebanon by May of 2005, ending thereby a 30-year of
   military presence in this neighboring country.

   Syrian troops withdrew from Lebanon on April 26, 2005 under intense
   pressure from the Lebanese opposition and the international community.
   After two UN investigations (the FitzGerald Report and the Mehlis
   report) implicated Syrian officials in the Hariri killing, the Assad
   regime entered a turbulent period, the seriousness of the crisis
   signalled by the suicide of interior minister Ghazi Kanaan, as well as
   Western threats of economic sanctions. Mehlis was replaced as head of
   the UN investigation team by the Belgian Serge Brammertz on December
   15, 2005. Under the second part of the investigation, led by the
   Belgian Serge Brammertz, there has clearly been a better tone between
   the UN investigative team and the Syrian authorities. Brammertz, unlike
   his predecessor Mehlis, has also chosen to be discreet about his
   findings – making his final conclusions all the more unpredictable –
   but he praised Syria's "full co-operation" with the UN investigators.

Administrative divisions

   Syria has fourteen governorates, or muhafazat (singular: muhafazah). A
   governor, whose appointment is proposed by the minister of the
   interior, approved by the cabinet, and announced by executive decree,
   heads each governorate. The governor is assisted by an elected
   provincial council. Note that parts of the Quneitra governorate is
   under Israeli occupation since 1967 (see Golan Heights).

           1. Damascus
           2. Rif Dimashq
           3. Quneitra
           4. Dara
           5. As Suwayda
           6. Homs
           7. Tartous
           8. Latakia
           9. Hama
          10. Idlib
          11. Aleppo
          12. Ar Raqqah
          13. Dayr az Zawr
          14. Al Hasakah

                          Map of administrative divisions of Syria.

Syrian Major Cities

   Damascus - Aleppo - Latakia - Homs - Hama

Other Cities

   Al Hasakah - Dayr az Zawr - Ar Raqqah - Idlib - Dara - Suwayda -
   Tartous

Syrian Towns

   Kamichli - Masyaf - Safita - Jableh - Al-Thawrah - Duma - Banias

Syrian Villages

   Albaida - Marmarita - Mashta Al helou - Al-Nabk

Politics

   President Bashar al-Assad of Syria.
   Enlarge
   President Bashar al-Assad of Syria.

   Syria is a parliamentary republic. All three branches of government are
   guided by the views of the Ba'ath Party, whose primacy in state
   institutions is assured by the constitution. In addition, six other
   political parties are permitted to exist and, along with the Ba'ath
   Party, make up the National Progressive Front (NPF), a grouping of
   parties that represents the sole framework of legal political party
   participation for citizens. While created ostensibly to give the
   appearance of a multi-party system, the NPF is dominated by the Ba'ath
   Party and does not change the essentially one-party character of the
   political system. The Ba'ath Party dominates the Parliament, which is
   known as the People's Council (majlis ash-sha'b). Elected every four
   years, the Council has no independent authority. Although
   parliamentarians may criticize policies and modify draft laws, they
   cannot initiate laws, and the executive branch retains ultimate control
   over the legislative process. It essentially functions as a
   rubber-stamp for the executive authority.

   There was a surge of interest in political reform after Bashar al-Assad
   assumed power in 2000. Human rights activists and other civil society
   advocates, as well as some Parliamentarians, became more outspoken
   during a period referred to as " Damascus Spring" (July 2000-February
   2001).

   Government

   The Syrian constitution vests the Arab Ba'ath Socialist Party with
   leadership functions in the state and society and provides broad powers
   to the president. The president, approved by referendum for a 7-year
   term, also is Secretary General of the Ba'ath Party and leader of the
   National Progressive Front. The president has the right to appoint
   ministers, to declare war and states of emergency, to issue laws
   (which, except in the case of emergency, require ratification by the
   People's Council), to declare amnesty, to amend the constitution, and
   to appoint civil servants and military personnel. Along with the
   National Progressive Front, the president decides issues of war and
   peace and approves the state's 5-year economic plans. The National
   Progressive Front also acts as a forum in which economic policies are
   debated and the country's political orientation is determined.

Human rights

   A state of emergency has been in effect since 1963. Since then,
   security forces have committed human rights abuses including arbitrary
   arrest and detention, prolonged detention without trial, unfair trials
   in the security courts, and infringement on privacy rights. Amnesty
   International estimates around 600 political prisoners remain.

   Prison conditions do not meet international standards for health and
   sanitation. The regime restricts freedom of speech, press, assembly,
   association, and political opposition. According to Arab Press Freedom
   Watch, the current government has a poor record on freedom of
   expression.

   In 2005, the Freedom House criticised the country's political rights
   and civil liberties.

   By contrast, religious freedoms are respected; the freedom to worship
   is consistently upheld, although radical Islamic sentiment is
   repressed.

Geography

   Satellite image of Syria (border lines added).
   Enlarge
   Satellite image of Syria (border lines added).

   Syria consists mostly of arid plateau, although the northwest part of
   the country bordering the Mediterranean is fairly green. The Northeast
   of the country "Al Jazira" and the South "Hawran" are important
   agricultural areas. The Euphrates, Syria's most important river,
   crosses the country in the east. It is considered to be one of the
   fifteen states that comprise the so-called " Cradle of Civilization".

   Major cities include the capital Damascus in the southwest, Aleppo in
   the north, and Homs. Most of the other important cities are located
   along the coast line (see List of cities in Syria).

   The climate in Syria is dry and hot, and winters are mild. Because of
   the country's elevation, snowfall does occasionally occur during
   winter.

Economy

   Syria is a middle-income, developing country with a diversified economy
   based on agriculture, industry, and energy. During the 1960s, citing
   its state socialist ideology, the government nationalized most major
   enterprises and adopted economic policies designed to address regional
   and class disparities. This legacy of state intervention and price,
   trade, and foreign exchange controls still hampers economic growth,
   although the government has begun to revisit many of these policies,
   especially in the financial sector and the country's trade regime.
   Despite a number of significant reforms and ambitious development
   projects of the early 1990s, as well as more modest reform efforts
   currently underway, Syria's economy still is slowed by large numbers of
   poorly performing public sector firms, low investment levels, and
   relatively low industrial and agricultural productivity.

   Despite the mitigation of the severe drought that plagued the region in
   the late 1990s and the recovery of energy export revenues, Syria's
   economy faces serious challenges. With almost 60% of its population
   under the age of 20, unemployment higher than the current estimated
   range of 20%-25% is a real possibility unless sustained and strong
   economic growth takes off. Oil production has levelled off, but recent
   agreements allowing increased foreign investment in the petroleum
   sector may boost production in two to three years.

   Taken as a whole, Syrian economic reform thus far has been incremental
   and gradual, with privatization not even on the distant horizon. The
   government, however, has begun to address structural deficiencies in
   the economy such as the lack of a modern financial sector through
   changes to the legal and regulatory environment. In 2001, Syria
   legalized private banking. In 2004, four private banks began
   operations. In August 2004, a committee was formed to supervise the
   establishment of a stock market. Beyond the financial sector, the
   Syrian Government has enacted major changes to rental and tax laws, and
   is reportedly considering similar changes to the commercial code and to
   other laws, which impact property rights.

   Commerce has always been important to the Syrian economy, which
   benefited from the country's location along major east-west trade
   routes. Syrian cities boast both traditional industries such as weaving
   and dried-fruit packing and modern heavy industry. Given the policies
   adopted from the 1960s through the late 1980s, Syria failed to join an
   increasingly interconnected global economy. In late 2001, however,
   Syria submitted a request to the World Trade Organization to begin the
   accession process. Syria had been an original contracting party of the
   former General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade but withdrew in 1951
   because of Israel's joining. Major elements of current Syrian trade
   rules would have to change in order to be consistent with the WTO.
   Syria is intent on signing an Association Agreement with the European
   Union that would entail significant trade liberalization.

   The bulk of Syrian imports have been raw materials essential for
   industry, agriculture, equipment, and machinery. Major exports include
   crude oil, refined products, raw cotton, clothing, fruits, and cereal
   grains. Earnings from oil exports are one of the government's most
   important sources of foreign exchange.

   Of Syria's 72,000 square miles (186,000 km²), roughly one-third is
   arable, with 80% of cultivated areas dependent on rainfall for water.
   In recent years, the agriculture sector has recovered from years of
   government inattentiveness and drought. Most farms are privately owned,
   but the government controls important elements of marketing and
   transportation.

   The government has redirected its economic development priorities from
   industrial expansion into the agricultural sectors in order to achieve
   food self-sufficiency, enhance export earnings, and stem rural
   migration. Thanks to sustained capital investment, infrastructure
   development, subsidies of inputs, and price supports, Syria has gone
   from a net importer of many agricultural products to an exporter of
   cotton, fruits, vegetables, and other foodstuffs. One of the prime
   reasons for this turnaround has been the government's investment in
   huge irrigation systems in northern and northeastern Syria, part of a
   plan to increase irrigated farmland by 38% over the next decade.

   Syria has produced heavy-grade oil from fields located in the northeast
   since the late 1960s. In the early 1980s, light-grade, low-sulphur oil
   was discovered near Dayr az Zawr in eastern Syria. This discovery
   relieved Syria of the need to import light oil to mix with domestic
   heavy crude in refineries. Recently, Syrian oil production has been
   about 530,000 barrels per day. Although its oil reserves are small
   compared to those of many other Arab states, Syria's petroleum industry
   accounts for a majority of the country's export income. The government
   has successfully begun to work with international energy companies to
   develop Syria's promising natural gas reserves, both for domestic use
   and export. U.S. energy firm, ConocoPhillips, completed a large natural
   gas gathering and production facility for Syria in late 2000, and
   continued to serve as operator of the plant until December 2005. In
   2003, Syria experienced some success in attracting U.S. Petroleum
   companies, signing an exploration deal with partners Devon Energy and
   Gulfsands and a seismic survey contract with Veritas.

   Ad hoc economic liberalization continues to provide hope to Syria's
   private sector. In 1990, the government established an official
   parallel exchange rate (neighboring country rate) to provide incentives
   for remittances and exports through official channels. This action
   improved the supply of basic commodities and contained inflation by
   removing risk premiums on smuggled commodities.

   Over time, the government has increased the number of transactions to
   which the more favorable neighboring country exchange rate applies. The
   government also introduced a quasi-rate for non-commercial transactions
   in 2001 broadly in line with prevailing black market rates.
   Exchange-rate unification remains an elusive goal as pressure is
   building for Syria to harmonize its exchange rate system.

   Given the poor development of its own capital markets and Syria's lack
   of access to international money and capital markets, monetary policy
   remains captive to the need to cover the fiscal deficit. Although in
   2003 Syria lowered interest rates for the first time in 22 years and
   again in 2004, rates remain fixed by law. In a positive move in 2003,
   Syria canceled an old and troublesome law governing foreign currency
   exchange; however, new regulations have yet to be implemented. Some
   basic commodities continue to be heavily subsidized, and social
   services are provided for nominal charges.

   Syria has made progress in easing its heavy foreign debt burden through
   bilateral rescheduling deals with virtually all of its key creditors in
   Europe. In May 2005, Russia and Syria signed a deal that wrote off
   nearly three-quarters of Syria's debt to Russia, approximately €10.5
   billion ($13 billion). The agreement left Syria with less than €3
   billion (just over $3.6 billion) owed to Moscow. Half of it would be
   repaid over the next 10 years, while the rest would be paid into
   Russian accounts in Syrian banks and could be used for Russian
   investment projects in Syria and for buying Syrian products.

Demographics

   Most people live in the Euphrates River valley and along the coastal
   plain, a fertile strip between the coastal mountains and the desert.
   Overall population density is about 258 per square mile (99/km²).
   Education is free and compulsory from ages 6 to 11. Schooling consists
   of 6 years of primary education followed by a 3-year general or
   vocational training period and a 3-year academic or vocational program.
   The second 3-year period of academic training is required for
   university admission. Total enrollment at post-secondary schools is
   over 150,000. The literacy rate of Syrians aged 15 and older is 89% for
   males and 64% for females.

Ethnic groups

   Arabs (including some 400,000 Palestinian refugees) make up over 85% of
   the population. The Kurds, linguistically an Indo-Iranian people,
   constitute the largest ethnic minority, making up 10% of the
   population. Most Kurds reside in the northeast corner of Syria and many
   still speak the Kurdish language. Sizable Kurdish communities live in
   most major Syrian cities as well. The Assyrian Christians are also a
   notable minority (about 3%) that live in north and northeast Syria, and
   are included in the Arab population.

   Ethnic Syrians are an overall Semitic Levantine people. While
   modern-day Syrians are commonly described as Arabs by virtue of their
   modern-day language and bonds to Arab culture and history — they are in
   fact a blend of the various ancient Semitic groups indigenous to the
   region who in turn admixed with later arriving Arabs. There is also a
   smaller degree of admixture from non-Semitic peoples that have occupied
   the region over time.

Religion

   Syria's population is 90% Muslim and 10% Christian. Among Muslims, 75%
   are Sunni and the remaining 25% is divided among other Muslim groups,
   mainly Alawis and Druze, but also a small number of Isma'ili and
   twelver Shi'a, which has increased dramatically due to the influx of
   Iraqi refugees. Christians, a sizable number of which are also found
   among Syrian Palestinians, are divided into several groups.
   Chalcedonian Antiochian Orthodox ("Greek Orthodox") make up half of the
   Christian population (10 % of total Syrian population); the Syriac,
   Maronites and other Catholics 15%, Assyrian Christians, Armenian
   Oriental Orthodox centered in Aleppo, the native Syriac Orthodox Church
   and several smaller Christians groups account for the remainder. There
   also is a tiny Syrian Jewish community that is confined mainly to
   Damascus; remnants of a formerly 40,000 strong community. Many Jews
   left Syria after agreement with the US in the 1990s allowed them to
   emigrate to Israel, although important small Jewish communities still
   exist in Damascus and Aleppo. Jews in Israel maintain ties to their
   homeland.

Languages

   Arabic is the official and most widely spoken language. Kurdish is
   widely spoken in the Kurdish regions of Syria. Many educated Syrians
   also speak English or French, but English is more widely understood.
   Armenian and Türkmen are spoken among the Armenian and Türkmen
   minorities. Aramaic, the lingua franca of the region before the advent
   of Islam and Arabic, is spoken among certain ethnic groups: as Syriac,
   it is used as the liturgical language of various Syriac denominations;
   modern Aramaic (particularly, Turoyo language and Assyrian Neo-Aramaic)
   is spoken in Al-Jazira region. Most remarkably, Western Neo-Aramaic is
   still spoken in the village of Ma`loula, and two neighbouring villages,
   35 miles (56 km) northeast of Damascus.

Culture

   Syria offered the world the Ugarit cuneiform, the root for the
   Phoenician alphabet, which dates back to the fourteenth century BC. The
   alphabet was written in the familiar order we use today.

   Archaeologists have discovered extensive writings and evidence of a
   culture rivaling those of Mesopotamia and Egypt in and around the
   ancient city of Ebla. Later Syrian scholars and artists contributed to
   Hellenistic and Roman thought and culture. Cicero was a pupil of
   Antiochus of Ascalon at Athens; and the writings of Posidonius of
   Apamea influenced Livy and Plutarch.

   Philip Hitti claimed, "the scholars consider Syria as the teacher for
   the human characteristics," and Andrea Parrout writes, "each civilized
   person in the world should admit that he has two home countries: the
   one he was born in, and Syria."

   Syria is a traditional society with a long cultural history. Importance
   is placed on family, religion, education and self discipline and
   respect. The Syrian's taste for the traditional arts is expressed in
   dances such as the al-Samah, the Dabkes in all their variations and the
   sword dance. Marriage ceremonies and the birth of children are
   occasions for the lively demonstration of folk customs.

   Traditional Houses of the Old Cities in Damascus, Aleppo and the other
   Syrian cities are preserved and traditionally the living quarters are
   arranged around one or more courtyards, typically with a fountain in
   the middle supplied by spring water, and decorated with citrus trees,
   grape vines, and flowers.

   Outside of larger city areas such as Damascus, Aleppo or Homs,
   residential areas are often clustered in smaller villages. The
   buildings themselves are often quite old (perhaps a few hundred years
   old), passed down to family members over several generations.
   Residential construction of rough concrete and blockwork is usually
   unpainted, and the palette of a Syrian village is therefore simple
   tones of greys and browns.

   Syrians have contributed to Arabic literature and music and have a
   proud tradition of oral and written poetry. Syrian writers, many of
   whom immigrated to Egypt, played a crucial role in the nahda or Arab
   literary and cultural revival of the nineteenth century. Prominent
   contemporary Syrian writers include, among others, Adonis, Haidar
   Haidar, Ghada al-Samman, Nizar Qabbani and Zakariyya Tamer.

   Syria has a small cinema industry, with production entirely in the
   hands of the state National Cinema Organisation, which employs
   film-makers as civil servants. Funding is only sufficient to produce
   approximately one feature film every year, and these are often then
   banned by the political censor, but have won prizes at international
   festivals. Notable directors include Omar Amirali, Usama Muhammad, and
   Abd al-Latif Abd al-Hamid. Syrian directors have also worked abroad, in
   Egypt and Europe.

   There was a private sector presence in the Syrian cinema industry until
   the end of the 1970s, but private investment has since preferred the
   more lucrative television serial business. Syrian soap operas, in a
   variety of styles (all melodramatic, however), have considerable market
   penetration throughout the eastern Arab world.

   Although declining, Syria's world-famous handicraft industry still
   employs thousands.

   Eggelin Tomb Tower in Palmyra

   Saladin's grave in Damascus

   The Umayyad Mosque courtyard, Damascus

   Citadel of Aleppo

   Roman theatre in Bosra

   Hama, Syria - a minaret of Al Nouri mosque

   Town Square of Sweida (As Suwayda)

Fairs and festivals

                     Festival/Fair           City      Month
                    Flower Festival        Latakia     April
                 Traditional Festival      Palmyra      May
               International Flower Fair   Damascus     May
                     Vine Festival        As Suwayda September
                    Cotton Festival         Aleppo   September
              Damascus International Fair  Damascus  September
                   Festival of Love        Lattakia  September
                    Bosra Festival          Bosra    September
               Film and Theatre Festival   Damascus  November

     * Music of Syria

   Retrieved from " http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria"
   This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia
   with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details
   of authors and sources) and is available under the GNU Free
   Documentation License. See also our Disclaimer.
