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Wine

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Drink

   Wine is an alcoholic beverage produced by the fermentation of the juice
   of fruits, usually grapes. Although a number of other fruits — such as
   plum, elderberry and blackcurrant — may also be fermented, only grapes
   are naturally chemically balanced to ferment completely without
   requiring extra sugars, acids, enzymes or other nutrients. Non-grape
   wines are called fruit wine or country wine. Other products made from
   starch based materials, such as barley wine, rice wine ( sake), are
   more similar to beers. Beverages made from other fermentable material
   such as honey ( mead), or that are distilled, such as brandy, are not
   wines. The English word wine and its equivalents in other languages are
   protected by law in many jurisdictions.
   A glass of red wine
   Enlarge
   A glass of red wine
             Red table wine
   Nutritional value per 100 g
         Energy 80 kcal   360 kJ

   Carbohydrates     2.6 g
   - Sugars  0.6 g
   Fat               0.0 g
   Protein           0.1 g
   Alcohol           10.6 g
       10.6 g alcohol is 13 vol%.
   100 g wine is 100 mL (3.4 fl oz.)
   Sugar and alcohol content can vary.
   Source: USDA Nutrient database

Etymology

   The word wine comes from the Old English win, which derives from the
   Proto-Germanic *winam, an early borrowing from the Latin vinum, "wine"
   or "(grape) vine" — itself derived from the Proto-Indo-European word
   *win-o (cf. Ancient Greek οῖνος oînos).. The fact that all branches of
   Semitic have a nearly identical term for grape suggests a prehistoric
   loan into Indo-European from that family.

Early history

   Wine residue has been identified by Patrick McGovern's team at the
   University Museum, Pennsylvania, in ancient pottery jars. Records
   include ceramic jars from the Neolithic sites at Shulaveri, of
   present-day Georgia (about 6000 BC) , Hajji Firuz Tepe in the Zagros
   Mountains of present-day Iran (5400-5000 BC), and from Late Uruk
   (3500-3100 BC) occupation at the site of Uruk, in Mesopotamia . The
   identifications are based on the identification of tartaric acid and
   tartrate salts using a form of infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). These
   identifications are regarded with caution by some biochemists because
   of the risk of false positives, particularly where complex mixtures of
   organic materials, and degradation products, may be present. The
   identifications have not yet been replicated in other laboratories.

   In his book Ancient Wine: The Search for the Origins of Viniculture
   (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003), McGovern argues that the
   domestication of the Eurasian wine grape and winemaking could have
   originated on the territory of modern Georgia and spread south from
   there.
   In Iran (Persia), mei (the Persian wine) has been a central theme of
   their poetry for more than a thousand years, although alcohol is
   strictly forbidden in Islam.
   Enlarge
   In Iran (Persia), mei (the Persian wine) has been a central theme of
   their poetry for more than a thousand years, although alcohol is
   strictly forbidden in Islam.

   Little is actually known of the prehistory of wine. It is plausible
   that early foragers and farmers made alcoholic beverages from wild
   fruits, including wild grapes ( Vitis silvestris). This would have
   become easier following the development of pottery vessels in the later
   Neolithic of the Near East, about 9000 years ago. However, wild grapes
   are small and sour, and relatively rare at archaeological sites. It is
   unlikely they could have been the basis of a wine industry.

   Domesticated grapes were abundant in the Near East from the beginning
   of the Early Bronze Age, starting in 3200 BC. There is also
   increasingly abundant evidence for wine making in Sumer and Egypt in
   the third millennium BC. The ancient Chinese made wine from native wild
   "mountain grapes" like Vitis thunbergii for a time, until they imported
   domesticated grape seeds from Central Asia in the second century BC.
   Grapes were, of course, also an important food. There is scant evidence
   for earlier domestication of grape, in the form of grape pips from
   Chalcolithic Tell Shuna in Jordan, but this evidence remains
   unpublished.

   Exactly where wine was first made is still unclear. It could have been
   anywhere in the vast region, stretching from Spain to Central Asia,
   where wild grapes grow. However, the first large-scale production of
   wine must have been in the region where grapes were first domesticated,
   Southern Caucasus and the Near East. Wild grapes grow in Georgia,
   northern Levant, coastal and southeastern Turkey, northern Iran or
   Armenia. None of these areas can, as yet, be definitively singled out,
   despite persistent suggestions that Georgia is the birthplace of wine .

Ancient Egypt and the Middle East

   A wine vessel from the 18th century BC
   Enlarge
   A wine vessel from the 18th century BC

   In Egypt, wine played an important role in ancient ceremonial life. A
   thriving royal winemaking industry was established in the Nile Delta
   following the introduction of grape cultivation from the Levant to
   Egypt c. 3000 BC. The industry was most likely the result of trade
   between Egypt and Canaan during the Early Bronze Age, commencing from
   at least the Third Dynasty ( 2650 – 2575 BC), the beginning of the Old
   Kingdom period ( 2650 – 2152 BC). Winemaking scenes on tomb walls, and
   the offering lists that accompanied them, included wine that was
   definitely produced at the deltaic vineyards. By the end of the Old
   Kingdom, five wines, all probably produced in the Delta, constitute a
   canonical set of provisions, or fixed "menu," for the afterlife. The
   advent of wine in Europe was the work of the Greeks who spread the art
   of grape-growing and winemaking in ancient Greek and Roman times.

   Wine in ancient Egypt was predominantly red. A recent discovery,
   however, has revealed the first ever evidence of white wine in ancient
   Egypt. Residue from five clay amphorae from Pharaoh Tutankhamun's tomb
   yielded traces of white wine.

   Outside Egypt, much of the ancient Middle East preferred beer as a
   daily drink rather than wine, a taste likely inherited from the
   Sumerians. However, wine was well-known, especially near the
   Mediterranean coast, and figures prominently in the ritual life of the
   Jewish people going back to the earliest known records of the faith;
   the Tanakh mentions it prominently in many locations as both a boon and
   a curse, and wine drunkenness serves as a major theme in a number of
   Bible stories.

Ancient Greece

   Much modern wine culture derives from the practices of the ancient
   Greeks; while the exact arrival of wine in Greek territory is unknown,
   it was known to both the Minoan and Mycenaean cultures. Dionysos was
   the Greek god of wine and revelry, and wine was frequently referred to
   in the works of Homer and Aesop. In Homeric myths wine is usually
   served in " mixing bowls"; it was not traditionally drunk straight. It
   was thought to be referred to as "Juice of the Gods."

   Many of the grapes grown in Greece are grown nowhere else, and are
   similar or identical to varieties grown in ancient times. In addition,
   the popular modern Greek wine, retsina, is believed to be a carryover
   from when wine jugs were lined with tree resin and imparted a distinct
   flavor to the wine.

   Greek wine was widely known and exported throughout the Mediterranean
   basin, and amphorae with Greek styling and art have been found
   throughout the area.

Roman Empire

   The Roman Empire had an immense impact on the development of
   viticulture and oenology. Wine was an integral part of the Roman diet
   and wine making became a precise business.

   As the Roman Empire expanded, wine production in the provinces grew to
   the point where the provinces were competing with Roman wines.
   Virtually all of the major wine producing regions of Western Europe
   today were established by the Romans. But it was the region of
   Lusitania (Portugal) that was distinguished by the Romans for its
   properties, hence the name Lusitania comes from the name of the god
   Bacchus or Lyssa/ Lusus.

   Wine making technology improved considerably during the time of the
   Roman Empire. Many grape varieties and cultivation techniques were
   known. Barrels were developed for storing and shipping wine. Bottles
   were used for the first time and the early developments of an
   appellation system formed as certain regions gained reputations for
   fine wine.

   When the Roman Empire fell around 500 AD, Europe went into a period
   known as the Dark Ages. This was a period of invasions and social
   turmoil. The only stable social structure was the Catholic Church.
   Through the Church, grape growing and wine making technology was
   preserved during this period.

Medieval Europe

   In medieval Europe wine was consumed by the church and the noble and
   merchant classes, ale being the drink of the general populace. Wine was
   necessary for the celebration of the Catholic Mass, and so assuring a
   supply was crucial. The Benedictine monks became one of the largest
   producers of wine in France and Germany, followed closely by the
   Cistercians. Other orders, such as the Carthusians, the Templars, and
   the Carmelites, are also notable both historically and in modern times
   as wine producers. The Benedictines owned vineyards in Champagne, (Dom
   Perignon was a Benedictine monk), Burgundy, and Bordeaux in France and
   in the Rheingau and Franconia in Germany; indeed, they were the first
   to plant Riesling grapes in Germany. Though they did not originate
   viticulture in these areas, they made it into an industry, producing
   enough wine to ship it all over Europe for secular use. In Portugal, a
   country with one of the oldest wine traditions, the first appellation
   system in the world was created.

   A housewife of the merchant class or a servant in a noble household
   would have served wine at every meal, and had a selection of reds and
   whites alike. Home recipes for meads from this period are still in
   existence, along with recipes for spicing and masking flavours in
   wines, including the simple act of adding a small amount of honey to
   the wine. As wines were kept in barrels, they were not extensively
   aged, and therefore were drunk quite young. To offset the effects of
   heavy consumption of alcohol, wine was frequently watered down at a
   ratio of four or five parts water to one of wine.

Wine in the New World

   Grapes and wheat were first brought to what is now Latin America by the
   first Spanish conquistadores to provide the necessities of the Catholic
   Holy Eucharist. Planted at Spanish missions, one variety came to be
   known as the Mission grapes and is still planted today in small
   amounts. Succeeding waves of immigrants imported French, Italian and
   German grapes, although wine from grapes native to the Americas is also
   produced (though often deemed an acquired taste, since the flavours can
   be very different).

   Wine in the Americas is most closely associated with the United States
   (particularly the state of California), Argentina, and Chile, all of
   which produce a wide variety of wines from inexpensive jug wines to
   high-quality varietals and proprietary blends. While most of the wine
   production in the Americas is based on Old World varieties, the wine
   growing regions of the Americas often have "adopted" grapes that are
   particularly closely identified with them, such as California's
   Zinfandel (from Croatia), Argentina's Malbec, and Chile's Carmenère
   (both from France).

   Until the latter half of the 20th century, American wine was generally
   looked upon as inferior to European product; it was not until the
   surprising American showing at the Paris wine tasting of 1976
   (nicknamed the "Judgement of Paris" in the media) that New World wine
   began to gain respect in the lands of wine's origins.

Outside the Americas

   For wine purposes, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and other
   countries without a wine tradition are also considered New World. Until
   quite late in the 20th century, the product of these countries was not
   well known outside their small export markets (Australia exported
   largely to the United Kingdom, New Zealand kept most of its wine
   internally, South Africa was closed off to much of the world market
   because of apartheid). However, with the increase in mechanization and
   scientific winemaking, Australian wine in particular became known for a
   unique fruitiness and low price for high quality.

Wine production

Wine producing countries

   CAPTION: Wine production by country 2005

   Rank                Country
        (with link to wine article)            Production
                                               ( tonnes)
   1    France France                          5,329,449
   2    Italy Italy                            5,056,648
   3    Spain Spain                            3,934,140
   4    United States United States of America 2,232,000
   5    Argentina Argentina                    1,564,000
   6    People's Republic of China China       1,300,000
   7    Australia Australia                    1,274,000
   8    South Africa South Africa              1,157,895
   9    Germany Germany                        1,014,700
   10   Chile Chile                            788,551

Wine producing regions

   Wine grapes grow almost exclusively between thirty and fifty degrees
   north or south of the equator. The world's most southerly vineyards are
   in the South Island of New Zealand near the 45th parallel and the most
   northerly is in Flen, Sweden, just above the 59th parallel. As a rule,
   grapevines prefer a relatively long growing season of 100 days or more
   with warm daytime temperatures (not above 95° F/35° C) and cool nights
   (a difference of 40°F/23°C or more).

Wine exporting countries

   The 14 largest export nations (2005 dates) – France, Italy, Spain,
   Australia, Chile, the United States of America, Germany, South Africa,
   Portugal, Romania, Moldova, Hungary, Croatia and Argentina. California
   produces about 90% of the wine in the United States. In 2000, Great
   Britain imported more wine from Australia than from France for the
   first time in history.
   Steep rock slope at the Moselle River
   Enlarge
   Steep rock slope at the Moselle River

   The leaders in export volume by market share in 2003 were:
     * France France, 22%
     * Italy Italy, 20%
     * Spain Spain, 16%
     * Australia Australia, 8%
     * Chile Chile, 6%
     * United States United States, 5%
     * Portugal Portugal, 4%
     * Germany Germany, 4%

Wine grape varieties

   Wine grapes on the vine
   Enlarge
   Wine grapes on the vine

   Wine is usually made from one or more varieties of the European
   species, Vitis vinifera. When one of these varieties, such as Pinot
   Noir, Chardonnay, or Merlot, for example, is used as the predominant
   grape (usually defined by law as a minimum of 75 or 85%) the result is
   a varietal, as opposed to a blended wine. Blended wines are in no way
   inferior to varietal wines; indeed, some of the world's most valued and
   expensive wines from the Bordeaux, Rioja or Tuscany regions, are a
   blend of several grape varieties of the same vintage.

   Wine can also be made from other species or from hybrids, created by
   the genetic crossing of two species. Vitis labrusca, Vitis aestivalis,
   Vitis muscadinia, Vitis rupestris, Vitis rotundifolia and Vitis riparia
   are native North American grapes, usually grown for eating in fruit
   form or made into grape juice, jam, or jelly, but sometimes made into
   wine, eg. Concord wine (Vitis labrusca species). Although generally
   prohibited by law in traditional wine regions, hybrids are planted in
   substantial numbers in cool-climate viticultural areas.

   Hybrids are not to be confused with the practice of grafting. Most of
   the world's vineyards are planted with European vinifera vines that
   have been grafted onto North American species rootstock. This is common
   practice because North American grape species are resistant to
   phylloxera. Grafting is done in every wine-producing country of the
   World except for Chile and Argentina, which have yet to be exposed to
   the bug.

   The variety of grape(s), aspect (direction of slope), elevation, and
   topography of the vineyard, type and chemistry of soil, the climate and
   seasonal conditions under which grapes are grown, the local yeast
   cultures altogether form the concept of " terroir." The range of
   possibilities lead to great variety among wine products, which is
   extended by the fermentation, finishing, and aging processes. Many
   small producers use growing and production methods that preserve or
   accentuate the aroma and taste influences of their unique terroir.

   However, flavor differences are not desirable for producers of
   mass-market table wine or other cheaper wines, where consistency is
   more important. These producers will try to minimize differences in
   sources of grapes and hide any hint of often-unremarkable "terroirs",
   or of climatically under-performing harvest years, by:
     * blending harvests of various years and vineyards;
     * pasteurizing the grape juice in order to kill indigenous yeasts (to
       be replaced with "choice" cultivated yeasts); and
     * using flavor additives.

Classification of wine

By vinification methods

   Dark purple wine grapes on the vine
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   Dark purple wine grapes on the vine

   Wines may be classified by vinification methods. These include
   classifications such as sparkling, still, fortified, rosé, and blush.
   The colour of wine is not determined by the juice of the grape, which
   is almost always clear, but rather by the presence or absence of the
   grape skin during fermentation. Grapes with colored juice, for example
   alicante bouchet, are known as teinturier. Red wine is made from red
   (or black) grapes, but its red colour is bestowed by a process called
   maceration, whereby the skin is left in contact with the juice during
   fermentation. White wine can be made from any colour of grape as the
   skin is separated from the juice during fermentation. A white wine made
   from a very dark grape may appear pink or ' blush'. A form of Rosé is
   called Blanc de Noirs where the juice of red grapes are allowed contact
   with the skins for a very short time (usually only a couple of hours).

   Sparkling wines, such as champagne, are those with carbon dioxide,
   either from fermentation or added later. They vary from just a slight
   bubbliness to the classic Champagne. To have this effect, the wine is
   fermented twice, once in an open container to allow the carbon dioxide
   to escape into the air, and a second time in a sealed container, where
   the gas is caught and remains in the wine. Sparkling wines that gain
   their carbonation from the traditional method of bottle fermentation
   are called Méthode Champenoise or 'Methode Traditionelle'. Other
   international denominations of sparkling wine include Sekt or
   Schaumwein (Germany), Cava (Spain), Spumante or Prosecco (Italy). In
   most countries except the United States, champagne is legally defined
   as sparkling wine originating from a region in France.

   Fortified wines are often sweeter, and generally more alcoholic wines
   that have had their fermentation process stopped by the addition of a
   spirit, such as brandy, or have had additional spirit added after
   fermentation.

   Brandy is a distilled wine. Grappa is a dry colorless brandy, distilled
   from fermented grape pomace, the pulpy residue of grapes, stems and
   seeds that were pressed for the winemaking process.

By taste

   Wines may be also classified by their primary impression on the
   drinker's palate. They are made up of chemical compounds which are
   similar to those in fruits, vegetables, and spices. Different grape
   varieties are associated with the aromas and tastes of different
   compounds. Wines may be described as 'dry' (meaning they are without
   obvious sugar), off-dry, fruity, or sweet, for example. The sugar
   content of grapes can be measured in brix, at harvest, and this
   determines the combined level of alcohol and residual sugar (in the
   absence of chaptalisation). Sweetness is in actuality determined by the
   amount of residual sugar in the wine after fermentation, relative to
   the acidity present in the wine. Dry wine, for example, has only a tiny
   amount of residual sugar.

   Specific flavours may also be sensed, at least by an experienced
   taster, due to the highly complex mix of organic molecules, such as
   esters, that a fully vinted wine contains. Experienced tasters will
   also distinguish between flavors characteristic of a specific grape
   (e.g., Cabernet Sauvignon and black currant) and flavors that are
   imparted by other factors in winemaking, either intentional or not. The
   most typical intentional flavor elements in wine are those that are
   imparted by aging in oak casks, and virtually every element of
   chocolate, vanilla, or coffee are actually a factor of oak and not the
   native grape. Banana flavors are almost always imparted by use of a
   specific yeast, and are not characteristic of any grape. Many people
   are very sensitive to animal scents in wine, and with possible
   exception of mourvedre almost all of these flavours, whether viewed
   positively or not, are the result of natural yeasts producing these
   scents.

   Generally an experienced taster will distinguish between the aromas
   that the natural grape produces--called primary qualities--and the
   bouquet that is imparted by secondary effects such as winemaking
   practices or aging.

Some red grapes

     * Cabernet Franc: tobacco, green bell pepper, raspberry, new-mown
       grass.
     * Cabernet Sauvignon: blackcurrants, chocolate, tobacco.
     * Gamay: pomegranate, strawberry, red fruits.
     * Grenache: smoky, pepper, raspberry
     * Malbec: violet, fruit
     * Merlot: black cherry, plums, tomato.
     * Mourvèdre: thyme, clove, cinnamon, black pepper, violet,
       blackberry.
     * Nebbiolo: leather, tar, stewed prunes, chocolate, liquorice, roses.
     * Norton: red fruit, elderberries.
     * Petite Sirah (Durif): earthy, black pepper, dark fruits.
     * Petit Verdot: violets (later)
     * Pinot Noir: raspberry, cherry, violets, "farmyard" (with age),
       truffles.
     * Pinotage: bramble fruits.
     * Sangiovese: herbs, black cherry, leathery, earthy.
     * Syrah (Shiraz): tobacco, black pepper, blackberry, smoke.
     * Tempranillo: vanilla, strawberry, tobacco.
     * Teroldego: spices, chocolate, red Fruits
     * Zinfandel: black cherry, pepper, mixed spices, mint.

Some white grapes

     * Albariño: lemon, minerals.
     * Breidecker: apple, pear.
     * Chardonnay: butter, melon, apple, pineapple, vanilla (if oaked, eg
       vinified or aged in new oak aging barrels)
     * Chenin Blanc: wet wool, beeswax, honey, apple, almond.
     * Gewürztraminer: rose petals, lychee, spice.
     * Grüner Veltliner: green apple, citrus.
     * Marsanne: almond, honeysuckle, marzipan.
     * Melon de Bourgogne: lime, salt, green apple.
     * Muscat: honey, grapes, lime.
     * Palomino: honeydew, citrus, raw nuts.
     * Pinot Gris (Pinot Grigio): white peach, pear, apricot.
     * Prosecco: apple, honey, musk, citrus.
     * Riesling: citrus fruits, peach, honey.
     * Sauvignon Blanc: gooseberry, lime, asparagus, cut grass, bell
       pepper.
     * Sémillon: honey, orange, lime.
     * Ugni Blanc, also known as Trebbiano: lime, herbs.
     * Verdicchio: apple, minerals, citrus.
     * Vermentino: pear, cream, green fruits.
     * Viognier: peach, pear, nutmeg, apricot.

By vintage

   Wines may be classified by the year in which the grapes are harvested,
   known as the "vintage". "Vintage wines" are made from grapes of a
   single year's harvest, and are accordingly dated. Some wines can
   improve in flavor as they age, and wine enthusiasts will occasionally
   save bottles of an especially good vintage wine for future consumption.

   Most countries allow a vintage wine to include a portion of wine that
   is not from the labeled vintage. In Chile and South Africa, the
   requirement is 75 percent. In Australia, New Zealand, and the member
   states of the European Union the requirement is 85 percent. In the
   United States the requirement is 95 percent same-year content for
   vintage-dated wine. In theory, the 95 percent rule in the United States
   applies equally to foreign imports, but there are obvious challenges in
   enforcing the regulation.

   For some types of wine, the best-quality grapes and the most care in
   wine-making are employed on vintage wines and they are therefore more
   expensive than non-vintage wines. Whilst vintage wines are generally
   made in a single batch so that each and every bottle will have a
   similar taste, climatic factors can have a dramatic impact on the
   character of a wine to the extent that different vintages from the same
   vineyard can vary dramatically in flavor and quality. Thus, vintage
   wines are produced to be individually characteristic of the vintage and
   to serve as the flagship wines of the producer. Non-vintage wines,
   however, are blended from a number of vintages for consistency, this
   allows wine makers to keep a reliable market image and also maintain
   sales even in bad vintage years.

   Superior vintages, from reputable producers and regions, will often
   fetch much higher prices than their average vintages. Some vintage
   wines are only made in better-than-average years. Conversely, wines
   such as White Zinfandel, which do not age well, are made to be drunk
   immediately and may not be labeled with a vintage year, though there
   are exceptions. French Champagne is often non-vintage, but still
   expensive. It can sometimes profit from aging 2-3 years and some
   Prestige Cuvées even much longer.

   There is some disagreement and research about the significance of
   vintage year to wine quality.

By wine style

Some red wines

     * Vitach: Macedonia
     * Kratoshija: Macedonia
     * T'ga za Jug: Macedonia
     * Kavadarka: Macedonia
     * Amarone: Italy
     * Barbaresco: Italy
     * Barolo: Italy
     * Beaujolais: France
     * Blaufränkischer: Austria
     * Bobal: Spain
     * Bordeaux: France
     * Brancellao: Spain
     * Brunello di Montalcino: Italy
     * Burgundy: France
     * Cabernet Franc: France, USA (California, Virginia)
     * Cabernet Sauvignon: Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, Greece,
       Italy, Moldova, New Zealand, Romania, South Africa, Turkey, USA
       (California, Texas, Washington State), Venezuela
     * Cannonau: Italy
     * Carmenere: Chile
     * Cencibel: Spain
     * Chianti: Italy
     * Dimyat: Bulgaria
     * Dingač: Croatia
     * Fetească Neagră: Romania
     * Fetească Regală: Romania
     * Garnacha, also known as Grenache and as Cannonau: Australia,
       France, South America, Spain, USA (California)
     * Gumza: Bulgaria
     * Kagor: Moldova
     * Kalecik Karasi: Turkey
     * Malbec: Argentina, France
     * Mavrodafni: Greece
     * Mavrud: Bulgaria
     * Mazuela: Spain
     * Melnik: Bulgaria
     * Merlot: Argentina, Australia, Canada, Chile, France, Italy,
       Moldova, New Zealand, Romania, South Africa, Turkey, USA
       (California, Texas, Washington State), Venezuela
     * Mirodia Red: Moldova
     * Monastrell: Spain
     * Norton: USA (Eastern and Midwestern States)
     * Nosiola: Italy
     * Pamid: Bulgaria
     * Petite Sirah: Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Mexico, USA
       (California, Washington State)
     * Pinot Meunier: France, Germany
     * Pinot Noir: Argentina, Australia, Canada, France, Italy, Moldova,
       New Zealand, Romania, South Africa, USA (California, Oregon,
       Washington State)
     * Pinotage: New Zealand, South Africa, Zimbabwe
     * Plavac mali: Croatia
     * Rioja: Spain
     * Saint-Emilion: France
     * Syrah/Shiraz: Australia, France ( Rhône), Greece, Italy, South
       Africa, Turkey, USA (California, Texas, Washington State),
       Venezuela
     * Tempranillo: Argentina, Spain, Venezuela
     * Trollinger: Germany
     * Valpolicella: Italy
     * Zinfandel: USA (California, Washington State)
     * Zweigelt: Austria

   Sparkling red wines
     * Brachetto: Italy
     * Cabernet Sauvignon: Australia
     * Lambrusco: Italy
     * Syrah/Shiraz: Australia

   Soleras wines
     * Marsala: Italy
     * Moscatel: Portugal
     * Palomino (grape used in Sherry): Spain
     * Pedro Ximénez: Spain
     * Porto: Portugal, South Africa ("port style", EU regulations forbid
       "port(o)" on labels)

Some white wines

     * Airén: Spain
     * Albillo: Spain
     * Aleasa Dulce: Moldova
     * Breidecker: New Zealand
     * Chablis: France
     * Chardonnay: Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Moldova, New
       Zealand, Romania, South Africa, Turkey, USA (California, Midwest
       States, Washington State)
     * Chenin Blanc: France, South Africa, Venezuela
     * Doña Blanca: Spain
     * Fetească Albă: Moldova, Romania
     * Frascati (wine): Italy
     * Gavi: Italy
     * Gewürztraminer: Australia, Canada, France (Alsace), Germany, New
       Zealand, Romania, South Africa, USA (New York State, Washington
       State)
     * Goldmuskateller: Italy
     * Grasă de Cotnari: Romania
     * Grüner Veltliner: Austria
     * Kerner: Italy
     * Macabeo: Spain
     * Malvasía: Italy
     * Meursault: France
     * Mirodia White: Moldova
     * Misket: Bulgaria
     * Moscatel: Spain, Venezuela
     * Müller-Thurgau: Austria, England, Germany, Italy
     * Muscat: Australia, Moldova, Romania, South Africa, Turkey
     * Orvieto: Italy
     * Pedro Ximénez: Spain
     * Pinot Gris/Pinot Grigio/Grauburgunder: France, Germany, Italy,
       Romania, USA (Oregon)
     * Pouilly-Fuissé: France
     * Retsina: Greece
     * Riesling: Australia, Austria, Canada, France (Alsace), Chile,
       Germany, Idaho, New Zealand, Romania, Italy, USA (New York - Finger
       Lakes, Oregon)
     * Sauvignon Blanc: Australia, Austria, France, Italy, Moldova, New
       Zealand, Romania, South Africa, Turkey, USA (California, Washington
       State), Venezuela
     * Semillon: Australia, France, South Africa, Turkey, USA (Washington
       State), Venezuela
     * Silvaner: Germany, Italy
     * Soave: Italy
     * Tǎmâioasǎ Româneascǎ: Romania
     * Tokaji: Hungary, Slovakia
     * Torrontés: Argentina, Spain
     * Traminer: Australia, Italy, Romania, Moldova
     * Verdelho: Australia, Portugal
     * Verdicchio dei castelli di Jesi: Italy
     * Vermentino: Italy
     * Vidal Blanc: USA (Virginia, New York)
     * Viognier: Australia, France ( Rhône), USA (California, Virginia)

   Sparkling white wines
     * Asti Spumante: Italy
     * Cava: Spain
     * Champagne: France
     * Franciacorta: Italy
     * Moscato d'Asti: Italy
     * Prosecco: Italy
     * Sekt: Austria, Germany
     * Txacolí: Spain
     * Vin Spumos (Zarea):Romania

   Pink wines
     * Busuioacă de Bohotin: Romania
     * Lagrein Rosato: Italy
     * Rosé: Australia, France, Portugal, South Africa, Spain, USA, Turkey

By quality

Premium wines

   Gold lettering on collectible Sydney Opera House wine
   Enlarge
   Gold lettering on collectible Sydney Opera House wine

   At the highest end, rare, super-premium wines are amongst the most
   expensive of all foodstuffs, and outstanding vintages from the best
   vineyards may sell for thousands of dollars per bottle. Red wines, at
   least partly because of their ability to form more complex subtleties,
   are typically more expensive. Some of the most expensive come from
   Bordeaux and Burgundy. However, some white dessert wines like German
   trockenbeerenauslese or French Sauternes for example, cost hundreds of
   dollars for a half bottle. Such premium wines are often at their best
   years or even decades after bottling. On the other hand, they may spoil
   after such long storage periods, unknown to the drinker about to open
   the bottle. Part of the expense associated with high-end wine comes
   from the number of bottles which must be discarded in order to produce
   a drinkable wine. Restaurants will often charge between two and five
   times the price of what a wine merchant may ask for an exceptional
   vintage. This is for a reason: diners will often return wines that have
   spoiled and not bear the expense. For restaurateurs, serving old
   vintages is a risk that is compensated through elevated prices. Some
   high-end wines may be Veblen goods.

   Exclusive wines come from all the best winemaking regions of the world.
   Secondary markets for these wines have consequently developed, as well
   as specialized facilities for post-purchase storage for people who
   either collect or "invest" in wine. The most common wines purchased for
   investment are Bordeaux, California cult wines and Port. The importance
   of the secondary wine market has led the rise of so-called
   "supercritics", most notably Robert M. Parker, Jr. The shift towards a
   perceived single-scale of wine analysis (the 100-point scale, or
   similar) has caused some traditionalists to claim that this process
   encourages a reduction in variety, as winemakers world-wide try to
   produce the allegedly single style of wine that will find favour with
   Mr. Parker and the many consumers who are influenced by his
   evaluations. The rise, in the late 1990s, of wines produced by the
   garagistes in Bordeaux, and the heavily tannic, highly fruit-driven
   wines of the New World, especially in California, Washington State,
   Australia and New Zealand, all selling for prices above that of the
   First Growths appear to reflect the influence of Parker and changing
   wine tastes. (The First Growths were classified by the French
   government in 1855 as the four best wines in Bordeaux. A fifth was
   added in 1973 after decades of lobbying by its owner.)

   Investment in fine wine has attracted a number of fraudsters who play
   on fine wine's exclusive image and their clients' ignorance of this
   sector of the wine market. Wine fraud scams often work by charging
   excessively high prices for the wine, while representing that it is a
   sound investment unaffected by economic cycles. Like any investment,
   proper research is essential before investing. False labeling is
   another dishonest practice commonly used.

   Some wines, produced to mark significant events in a country or region,
   can also become collectible because of labelling design. An example is
   the Mildara Rhine Riesling produced in 1973 to mark the opening of the
   Sydney Opera House. Instead of labels, the bottles (red, as well as
   white) had printing in gold on them, as seen in the illustration.

Cheap wines

   At the lower end of the quality spectrum, bulk wine or cooking wine is
   usually sold cheaply and in large quantities. Cleanskin wine is a type
   of cheap wine, of ever-increasing popularity in Australia, whose label
   does not feature the winery nor the winemaker's name. Cleanskin wine is
   not necessarily of low quality, and over-produced premium wines are
   often sold as cleanskins (mainly on online auctions) rather than turned
   into vinegar.

Wine names

   Wines are usually named either by their grape variety or by their place
   of production. Generally speaking, Old World (European) wines are named
   for the place of production, with the grapes used often not appearing
   on the label. New World wines (those from everywhere except Europe) are
   generally named for the grape variety. More and more, however, market
   recognition of particular regions and wineries is leading to their
   increased prominence on New World wine labels. Examples of recognized
   locales include: Napa Valley, Russian River Valley, Willamette Valley,
   Sonoma, Walla Walla, Central Coast, etc. Still, though, the grape
   variety is almost invariably present on the label. This is not the case
   with most European wines because of tradition and legal restrictions.
   However, to consumers, the system can be confusing if not impenetrable.
   For example, 72% of French adults report that they have difficulty
   understanding wine labels. This is understandable; the many systems of
   geographic nomenclature with their precise meanings and implications
   are highly complex.

   Within Europe, a major exception to the no-grape rule is with German
   wines, for which it is not uncommon to find this information on the
   front label. To accommodate market demands, an increasing number of
   French wine makers are labeling their bottles with the variety or
   varieties of grapes included, as permitted by law.

Regional wine names

   The taste of a wine depends not only on the grape species and varietal
   blend, but also on the ground and climate (known as terroir) where it
   is cultivated. Historically, wines have been known by names reflecting
   their origin, and sometimes style: Bordeaux, Rioja, Mosel and Chianti
   are all legally defined names, reflecting the traditional wines
   produced in the named region. These naming conventions or "
   appellations" (as they are known in France) dictate not only where the
   grapes in a wine were grown, but also which grapes went into the wine
   and how they were vinified. The appellation system is strongest in the
   European Union, but a related system, the American Viticultural Area,
   restricts the use of certain regional labels in America, such as Napa
   Valley, Santa Barbara and Willamette Valley. The AVA designations do
   not restrict the type of grape used. New World wines are known
   primarily by their varietal content, and not by their region.

   The inconsistent application of historical European designations
   offends many producers there. For example, in most of the world, wine
   labeled Champagne must be made from grapes grown in the Champagne
   region of France and fermented using a certain method, based on the
   international trademark agreements included in the 1919 Treaty of
   Versailles.

   While most countries restrict the use of European place names, there
   exists a legal definition called semi-generic in the United States that
   enables U.S. winemakers to use certain generic terms (Champagne, Hock,
   Sherry, etc.) if there appears next to the term the actual appellation
   of origin in order to prevent any possible confusion. Generally only
   the most inexpensive, mass-produced wines (or vin ordinaire) make use
   of these place names as semi-generic wine names; most of those now use
   the more popular varietal labeling.

   For example, makers of American sparkling wines now generally find it
   to be of no advantage in the marketplace to use the name "Champagne"
   because the quality of their products is widely recognized. Thus, the
   finest sparkling wines from California will be labeled "sparkling
   wine", while some less expensive sparkling wines from California as
   well as states such as Ohio and New York may bear such names as "Ohio
   Champagne" or "New York State Champagne."

   Some European producers protest the practice for fear that it causes
   loss of sales, although it would appear that only the most
   unsophisticated consumer could ever be confused or misled by the
   practice.

   Some blended wine names are marketing terms, and the use of these names
   is governed by trademark or copyright law, rather than a specific wine
   law or a patent on the actual varietal blend or process used to achieve
   it. For example, Meritage is generally a Bordeaux-style blend of
   Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot, and may also include Cabernet Franc,
   Petit Verdot, and Malbec. Use of the term Meritage is protected by
   licensing agreements by The Meritage Association.

Uses of wine

   A glass of white wine
   Enlarge
   A glass of white wine

   Wine is a popular and important beverage that accompanies and enhances
   a wide range of European and Mediterranean-style cuisines, from the
   simple and traditional to the most sophisticated and complex. Red,
   white and sparkling wines are the most popular, and are also known as
   light wines, because they only contain approximately 10-14% alcohol.
   (Alcohol percentages are usually by volume.) The apéritif and dessert
   wines contain 14-20% alcohol, and are fortified to make them richer and
   sweeter than the light wines. Although there are many classes of dinner
   wines, they can be categorized under six specific classes as follows:
     * Apéritif (or better known as "appetizer wines"): include dry
       sherry, Madeira, Vermouth, and other flavored wines, made to be
       consumed before eating a meal.
     * Red wines are usually dry and go well with such main-course dishes
       as red meats, spaghetti, and highly-seasoned foods.
     * Rosé wines (also called "pink wines") can be served with almost any
       dish, but are considered best with seafood, salads, cold cuts,
       pork, and curries.
     * White wines can be very dry to rather sweet, these wines should be
       served chilled, and go well with white meats, seafood, and fowl.
     * Sparkling wines are frequently served at banquets, formal dinners
       and weddings. They can be white, pink (rosé), or red. The best
       known sparkling wines come from the Champagne region in France.
       Sparkling wines from Spain are called Cava, and in Germany they are
       called Sekt. Although often served throughout a meal, sparkling
       wines do not generally pair well with main meals, and should be
       served as an apéritif or with certain entrées.
     * Table wine is not bubbly, although some have a very slight
       carbonation, the amount of which is not enough to disqualify them
       as table wines. According to U.S. standards of identity, table
       wines may have an alcohol content that is no higher than 14%. In
       Europe, light wine must be within 8.5% and 14% alcohol by volume.
       As such, unless a wine has more than 14% alcohol, or it has
       bubbles, it is a table wine or a light wine. In reality, in those
       regions where grapes ripen fully, such as California's hot Central
       Valley, a large portion of New World red wines have between 14 and
       15.5% alcohol, yet are still certainly 'table wines' in the
       practical sense.
     * Dessert wines range from medium-sweet to very sweet. These wines
       are classified under dessert wines only because they are sometimes
       served with desserts. Among these are port wine, sweet sherry,
       Tokaji (Tokay), Sauternes and muscatel.
     * Cooking wines typically contain a significant quantity of salt. It
       is a wine of such poor quality, that it is unpalatable by itself
       and intended for use only in cooking. (Note, however, that most
       cooking authorities advise against cooking with any wine one would
       find unacceptable to drink.)

   The labels on certain bottles of wine suggest that they need to be set
   aside for an hour before drinking to breathe, while other wines are
   recommended to be drunk as soon as they are opened. "Breathing" means
   allowing a wine to aerate before drinking. Generally, younger wines
   benefit from some aeration, while older wines do not. The word,
   "younger", refers to the first one third of a wine’s life, which varies
   from wine type to wine type and from wine to wine. For most red wines,
   "younger" means up to one to two years, while for white wines, it could
   mean as little as a few months. However, with every rule, there are
   exceptions: for a Beaujolais Nouveau, younger is measured in months, if
   not weeks; for a hearty Barossa Shiraz, it could be up to ten years.
   "Older", as one would expect, refers to the last one third of a wine's
   life.

   During aeration, the exposure of younger wines to air often "relaxes"
   the flavours and makes them taste smoother and better integrated in
   aroma, texture, and flavor. Wines that are older generally fade (lose
   their character and flavor intensity) with extended aeration.
   Breathing, however, does not benefit all wines, and should not
   therefore be taken to the extreme. In general, wine should be tasted as
   soon as it is opened to determine how long it may be aerated, if at
   all. It should then be tasted every 15 minutes until the wine is,
   according to individual preference, ready to drink. As a general rule,
   younger white wines normally require no more than 15-30 minutes of
   aeration while younger red wines should be no more than 30-60 minutes.
   If in doubt, it is better to err on the side of too little aeration
   than too much. Note that 'aerating' a wine involves more than removal
   of the cork. For aeration to provide any benefit whatsoever, the wine
   must be decanted.

Religious uses

   Wine is also used in religious ceremonies in many cultures and the wine
   trade is of historical importance for many regions. Libations often
   included wine, and the religious mysteries of Dionysus are usually
   thought to have used wine as an entheogen.

Judaism

   Wine is a very integral part of Jewish laws and traditions. In the
   Tabernacle and in the Temple in Jerusalem, the libation of wine was
   part of the sacrificial service. The Kiddush, a blessing prior to
   eating on the Sabbath and other holidays, is required to be said over
   wine. On Pesach ( Passover) during the Seder, it is also required to
   drink four cups of wine. In American Jewish practice, it is common to
   use a kosher wine made from Concord grapes, though the wine produced is
   not popular outside Jewish liturgical circles. It has become
   increasingly common to use higher-quality kosher wines (often grown and
   made in Israel) at the Passover table. Kosher laws regarding wine and
   other grape-derivitives are more extensive and restrictive than for any
   other food or drink, because only wine or grape juice can be used for
   sacramental purposes.

Christianity

   The New Testament states that Jesus' first miracle was to turn water
   into wine (John 2:1-11), and the Old Testament states that the
   fermentation of grapes was known by Noah after the great flood
   described in Genesis. (Gen. 9:20-21). However, it is also believed by
   some that the word "wine" is used interchangeably to describe both
   fermented (Proverbs 20:1, Proverbs 23:20, Proverbs 23:29-35) and
   unfermented grape juice (Isaiah 65:8, Hosea 4:11, Joel 1:5). This has
   led to some conflicts over the issue of the use of alcohol in the
   church. However, wine continues to remain an essential part of the
   Eucharistic rites in the Orthodox, Catholic, Lutheran and Anglican
   denominations of Christianity. Much of the wine industry in the
   Americas was created by the Spanish conquistadors to provide
   sacramental wine, as the native grapes did not prove suitable to the
   purpose.

   It was used in nearly all Protestant groups until Welch's created
   commercial grape juice in 1869 by applying pasteurization to grapes to
   stop the natural fermentation process. The influence of the temperance
   movement and prohibition also convinced some of them to switch from
   wine to grape juice; there is an ongoing debate in many American
   Protestant denominations as to whether the Greek and Hebrew words for
   wine refer to alcoholic wine or grape juice, though outside such
   circles the terms are believed to refer to alcoholic wine and the
   debate is considered meaningless. Outside the United States, only a
   very few, extremely conservative evangelical groups follow American
   practice, and most, even those connected with American denominations,
   do use alcoholic wine. A few denominations, most notably the Church of
   Jesus Christ Latter-day Saints, use water instead of grape juice or
   wine.

Islam

   Islam forbids the use of alcohol. Iran used to have a thriving wine
   industry that disappeared after the Islamic revolution in 1979.

Wine based drinks

     * Brandy: A general term for distilled wine which has been aged for
       at least 2 years.
     * Calimocho: A cheap alcoholic drink, comprising 50% red wine and 50%
       cola drink.
     * Mulled wine (known in Scandinavia as Glögg and in Germany as
       Glühwein): A red wine, combined with spices, and usually served
       hot.
     * Sangria: A wine punch, comprising red wine, chopped fruits, sugar,
       and a small amount of brandy or other spirits.
     * Spritzer: A tall, chilled drink, made of wine and soda water.
     * Wine cooler: An alcoholic beverage made from wine and fruit juice,
       often in combination with a carbonated beverage and sugar.
     * Zurracapote: A popular Spanish alcoholic drink comprised mainly of
       red wine, spirit, fruit juice, sugar and cinnamon.
     * Rebujito: A mixture of manzanilla wine, mixed with a soft drink
       like Sprite or 7 Up.

Medical implications

   Wine yearly consumption, per capita: ██ less than 1 litre. ██ from 1 to
   7 litres. ██ from 7 to 15 litres. ██ from 15 to 30 litres. ██ More than
   30 litres.
   Enlarge
   Wine yearly consumption, per capita: ██ less than 1 litre. ██ from 1 to
   7 litres. ██ from 7 to 15 litres. ██ from 15 to 30 litres. ██ More than
   30 litres.

   The health effects of wine (and alcohol in general) are the subject of
   considerable ongoing study. In the USA, a boom in red wine consumption
   was touched off in the 1990s by ' 60 Minutes', and other news reports
   on the French paradox.

   It now seems clear that regular consumption of up to 1-2 drinks a day
   (1 standard drink is approximately equal to 5 oz, or 125 ml, of 13%
   wine) does reduce mortality, due to a 10%–40% lower risk of coronary
   heart disease, especially for those over the age of 35 or so (see
   Alcohol consumption and health). Originally, the effect was observed
   with red wine. Compounds, known as polyphenols, are found in larger
   amounts in red wine, and there is some evidence that these are
   especially beneficial. One particularly interesting polyphenol
   antioxidant found in red wine is resveratrol, to which numerous
   beneficial effects have been attributed. Red wine also contains a
   significant amount of flavonoids and red anthocyanin pigments that act
   as antioxidants. With excessive consumption, however, any health
   benefits may be offset by the increased rate of various alcohol-related
   diseases, primarily cancers of mouth, upper respiratory tract, and
   ultimately, cirrhosis of liver, especially if consumption of red wine
   is immoderate.

   Other studies have shown that similar beneficial effects on the heart
   can be obtained from drinking beer, and distilled spirits. However,
   recent studies show that only red wine reduces the risk of contracting
   several types of cancer where beer and other alcoholic beverages show
   no change. Dr. Sinclair of Harvard University and others believe that
   resveratrol is the active molecule responsible for the significant
   difference in lowering cancer risks and that the required amounts are
   only found in red wine. Trace amounts of resveratrol exist in grapes,
   white and red wine and peanuts.

   Sulfites (or sulphites) are chemicals that occur naturally in grapes
   and also are added to wine as a preservative. They can trigger a severe
   and life-threatening allergic reaction in a small percentage of
   consumers, primarily asthmatics. In the USA nearly all commercially
   produced wine, including that with no added sulfites, is required to
   state on the label "contains sulfites." In other countries they do not
   have to be declared on the label, leading to a common mistaken belief
   that only wine from the USA contains sulfites. Many consumers who have
   adverse reactions to wine, such as headaches or hangovers, blame added
   sulfites but are probably reacting instead to naturally-occurring
   biogenic amines such as histamine. The quantity of sulfites in a glass
   of wine is the same as in a serving of dried apricots.

   Red Wine Headache syndrome is a bad headache often accompanied with
   queasiness and flushing that occurs in many people after drinking even
   a single glass of red wine. This can sometimes come on within 15
   minutes. The cause is not completely understood but it may have to do
   with higher tannins in red wine.

Corks

   Many wine corks
   Enlarge
   Many wine corks

Professions

     * Cooper: Someone who makes wooden barrels, casks, and other similar
       wooden objects.
     * Négociant: A wine merchant who assembles the produce of smaller
       growers and winemakers, and sells them under his own name.
     * Vintner: A wine merchant or producer.
     * Sommelier: A person in a restaurant who specializes in wine. They
       are usually in charge of assembling the wine list, staff education
       and making wine suggestions to customers.
     * Winemaker: A person who makes wine.
     * Oenologist: A wine scientist. Often referred to as a winemaker.
     * Viticulturist: A person who specializes in the science of the
       grapevines themselves. Can also be someone who manages a vineyard
       (decides how to prune, how much to irrigate, how to deal with
       pests, etc.)

Films & TV

     * "A Good Year" 2006. Ridley Scott directs Russell Crowe in an
       adaptation of Peter Mayle's novel. movie trailer
     * Mondovino, USA/France 2004: A documentary film directed by American
       film maker, Jonathan Nossiter, explaining the impact of
       globalization on the various wine-producing regions.
     * Sideways, 2004: A comedy/drama film, directed by Alexander Payne,
       with the tagline: In search of wine. In search of women. In search
       of themselves., in which wine, particularly Pinot Noir, plays a
       central role.
     * Falcon Crest, USA 1981-1990: A CBS primetime soap opera about the
       fictional Falcon Crest winery and the family who owned it, set in
       the fictional Tuscany Valley of California. The series was very
       popular and a wine named Falcon Crest even went on the market.

   Retrieved from " http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wine"
   This reference article is mainly selected from the English Wikipedia
   with only minor checks and changes (see www.wikipedia.org for details
   of authors and sources) and is available under the GNU Free
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