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Zhang Qian

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: General history;
Historical figures

          This is a Chinese name; the family name is Zhang

   Zhang Qian taking leave from emperor Han Wudi, for his expedition to
   Central Asia from 138 to 126 BCE, Mogao Caves mural, 618-712 CE.
   Enlarge
   Zhang Qian taking leave from emperor Han Wudi, for his expedition to
   Central Asia from 138 to 126 BCE, Mogao Caves mural, 618-712 CE.

   Zhang Qian ( Traditional Chinese: 張騫; Simplified Chinese: 张骞; Hanyu
   Pinyin: Zhāng Qiān; Wade-Giles: Chang Ch'ien; d. 113 BCE), was a
   Chinese explorer and imperial envoy in the 2nd century BCE, during the
   time of the Han Dynasty. He was the first official diplomat to bring
   back reliable information about Central Asia to the Chinese imperial
   court, then under Emperor Wu of Han, and played an important pioneering
   role in the Chinese colonisation and conquest of the region now known
   as Xinjiang. Zhang Qian's accounts of his explorations of Central Asia
   are detailed in the Early Han historical chronicles (" Shiji", or
   "Records of the Great Historian"), compiled by Sima Qian in the 1st
   century BCE .

First embassy to the West

   Ideograms for Zhang Qian.
   Enlarge
   Ideograms for Zhang Qian.

   Zhang Qian was born in present day Hanzhong, Shaanxi, at the border of
   northeastern Sichuan. He entered the capital, Chang'an, today's Xi'an,
   between 140 BCE and 134 BCE as a Gentleman (郎), serving Emperor Wu. At
   the time the Xiongnu tribes controlled modern Inner Mongolia and
   dominated much of modern Xiyu (西域 " Western Regions").

   The Han court despatched Zhang Qian to the Western Regions in 138 BCE
   with a delegation of over one hundred members, including a surrendered
   Xiongnu guide. The objective of Zhang Qian's first mission was to seek
   a military alliance with the Greater Yuezhi (月氏), in modern Tajikistan.
   On route he was captured by the Xiongnu and detained for ten years.
   There he married a Xiongnu wife and gained the trust of the Xiongnu
   leader.

   When Zhang finally made it to Yuezhi lands, he found that they were too
   settled to want war against the Xiongnu. He spent about one year in
   Yuezhi and Bactrian territory, documenting their cultures, lifestyles
   and economy, before returning to China.

Zhang Qian's report

   The report of Zhang Qian's travels is quoted extensively in the 1st
   century BCE Chinese historic chronicles "Records of the Great
   Historian" ( Shiji) by Sima Qian. Zhang Qian visited directly the
   kingdom of Dayuan in Ferghana, the territories Yuezhi in Transoxonia,
   the Bactrian country of Daxia with it remnants of Greco-Bactrian rule,
   and Kangju (康居). He also made reports on neighbouring countries that he
   did not visit, such as Anxi ( Parthia), Tiaozhi (Mesopotamia), Shendu
   (India) and the Wusun.

Dayuan (Ferghana)

   Countries described in Zhang Qian's report. Visited countries are
   highlighted in blue.
   Enlarge
   Countries described in Zhang Qian's report. Visited countries are
   highlighted in blue.

   Zhang Qian starts with a report on the first country he visited (after
   his captivity among the Xiongnu), Dayuan, in Ferghana, west of the
   Tarim Basin. They are considered by him as sophisticated urban
   dwellers, on the same footing as the Parthian and the Bactrians. The
   name Dayuan (meaning Great Yuan), may be a transliteration of the word
   Yona used to designate Greeks, who occupied the region from the 4th to
   the 2nd century BCE.

          "Dayuan lies southwest of the territory of the Xiongnu, some
          10,000 li (5,000 kilometers) directly west of China. The people
          are settled on the land, plowing the fields and growing rice and
          wheat. They also make wine out of grapes. The people live in
          houses in fortified cities, there being some seventy or more
          cities of various sizes in the region. The population numbers
          several hundred thousand" ( Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans.
          Burton Watson).

Yuezhi (Tocharians?)

   After obtaining the help of the king of Dayuan, Zhang Qian went
   southwest to the territory of the Yuezhi, with whom he was supposed to
   obtain a military alliance against the Xiongnu.

          "The Great Yuezhi live some 2,000 or 3,000 li (1,000 or 1,500
          kilometers) west of Dayuan, north of the Gui ( Oxus) river. They
          are bordered to the south by Daxia (Bactria), on the west by
          Anxi (Parthia), and on the north by Kangju (康居). They are a
          nation of nomads, moving place to place with their herds and
          their customs are like those of the Xiongnu. They have some
          100,000 or 200,000 archer warriors." ( Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian
          quote, trans. Burton Watson).

   Zhang Qian also describes the origins of the Yuezhi, explaining they
   came from the eastern part of the Tarim Basin, a momentous explanation
   which has encouraged historians to connect them to the Caucasoid
   mummies, as well as to the Indo-European-speaking Tocharians that have
   been identified from precisely the same area:

          "The Yuezhi originally lived in the area between the Qilian or
          Heavenly Mountains ( Tian Shan) and Dunhuang, but after they
          were defeated by the Xiongnu they moved far away to the west,
          beyond Dayuan (Ferghana), where they attacked the people of
          Daxia (Bactria) and set up the court of their king on the
          northern bank of the Gui (Oxus) river." ( Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian
          quote, trans. Burton Watson).

   A smaller group of Yuezhi, the "Little Yuezhi" were not able to follow
   the exodus and reportedly found refuge among the "Qiang barbarians" (
   Tibetans).

Daxia (Bactria)

   Zhang Qian probably witnessed the last period of the Greco-Bactrian
   kingdom, as it was being subjugated by the nomad Yuezhi. Only small
   powerless chiefs remained, who were apparently vassals to the Yuezhi
   horde. Their civilization was urban, almost identical to the
   civilizations of Parthia and Dayuan, and the population was numerous.

          "Daxia is situated over 2,000 li (1,000 kilometers) southwest of
          Dayuan (Ferghana), south of the Gui (Oxus) river. Its people
          cultivate the land, and have cities and houses. Their customs
          are like those of Dayuan. It has no great ruler but only a
          number of petty chiefs ruling the various cities. The people are
          poor in the use of arms and afraid of battle, but they are
          clever at commerce. After the Great Yuezhi moved west and
          attacked and conquered Daxia, the entire country came under
          their sway. The population of the country is large, numbering
          some 1,000,000 or more persons. The capital is Lanshi ( Bactra)
          where all sorts of goods are bought and sold." ( Shiji, 123,
          Zhang Qian quote, translation Burton Watson).

Shendu (India)

   Zhang Qian also reports about the existence of India southeast of
   Bactria. The name Shendu comes from the Sanskrit word "Sindhu", used
   for the province of Sindh (now a province of Pakistan) by its local
   people. Sindh was one of the most advanced regions of India at the
   time. Although it was part of India, it practiced separate authority
   over itself. Because of its coastal borders with Persia and the Arabian
   Sea, it invited great wealth from these regions. Parts of Northwestern
   India (modern Pakistan) was ruled by the Indo-Greek Kingdom at the
   time, which explains the reported cultural similarity between Bactria
   and India.

          "Southeast of Daxia is the kingdom of Shendu (India)... Shendu,
          they told me, lies several thousand li southeast of Daxia
          (Bactria). The people cultivate the land and live much like the
          people of Daxia. The region is said to be hot and damp. The
          inhabitants ride elephants when they go in battle. The kingdom
          is situated on a great river (Indus)" ( Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian
          quote, trans. Burton Watson).

Anxi (Parthia)

   Zhang Qian clearly identifies Parthia as an advanced urban
   civilization, like Dayuan (Ferghana) and Daxia (Bactria). The name
   "Anxi" is a transliterations of " Arsacid", name of the Parthian
   dynasty.

          "Anxi is situated several thousand li west of the region of the
          Great Yuezhi. The people are settled on the land, cultivating
          the fields and growing rice and wheat. They also make wine out
          of grapes. They have walled cities like the people of Dayuan
          (Ferghana), the region contains several hundred cities of
          various sizes. The coins of the country are made of silver and
          bear the face of the king. When the king dies, the currency is
          immediately changed and new coins issued with the face of his
          successor. The people keep records by writing on horizontal
          strips of leather. To the west lies Tiaozhi (Mesopotamia) and to
          the north Yancai and Lixuan ( Hyrcania)." ( Shiji, 123, Zhang
          Qian quote, trans. Burton Watson).

Tiaozhi

   Zhang Qian reports about Mesopotamia, beyond Parthia, although in
   rather tenuous terms, because he didn't go there, and was only able to
   reports other's accounts.

          "Tiaozhi (Mesopotamia) is situated several thousand li west of
          Anxi (Parthia) and borders the Western Sea (Persian Gulf/
          Mediterranean?). It is hot and damp, and the people live by
          cultivating the fields and planting rice... The people are very
          numerous and are ruled by many petty chiefs. The ruler of Anxi
          (Parthia) give orders to these chiefs and regards them as
          vassals." ( Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans. Burton Watson).

Kangju (康居) northwest of Sogdiana (粟特)

   Zhang Qian also visited directly the area of Sogdiana, home to the
   Sogdian nomads:

          "Kangju is situated some 2,000 li (1,000 kilometers) northwest
          of Dayuan (Bactria). Its people are nomads and resemble the
          Yuezhi in their customs. They have 80,000 or 90,000 skilled
          archer fighters. The country is small, and borders Dayuan. It
          acknowledges sovereignty to the Yuezhi people in the South and
          the Xiongnu in the East." ( Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans.
          Burton Watson).

Yancai 奄蔡 (Vast Steppe)

          "Yancai lies some 2,000 li (832 km) northwest of Kangju
          (centered on Turkestan at Bei'tian). The people are nomads and
          their customs are generally similar to those of the people of
          Kangju. The country has over 100,000 archer warriors, and
          borders a great shoreless lake, perhaps what is known as the
          Northern Sea (Aral Sea, distance between Tashkent to Aralsk is
          about 866 km)" ( Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans. Burton
          Watson).

Return to China

   On his return trip he was again captured by the Xiongnu who again
   spared his life because they valued his sense of duty and composure in
   the face of death. Two years later the Xiongnu leader died and in the
   midst of chaos and infighting Zhang Qian escaped.

   Zhang Qian returned in 125 BCE with detailed news for the Emperor,
   which showed that sophisticated civilizations existed to the West, with
   which China could advantageously develop relations. The Shiji relates
   that "the emperor learned of the Dayuan, Daxia, Anxi, and the others,
   all great states rich in unusual products whose people cultivated the
   land and made their living in much the same way as the Chinese. All
   these states, he was told, were militarily weak and prized Han goods
   and wealth". ( Shiji, 123, trans. Burton Watson).

   His second expedition was more organised, a trade mission to the Wu-sun
   people in 119 BCE. This was a success and led to trade between China
   and Persia.

Development of East-West contacts

   Following Zhang Qian' embassy and report, commercial relations between
   China and Central as well as Western Asia flourished, as many Chinese
   missions were sent throughout the end of the 2nd century BCE and the
   1st century BCE, initiating the development of the Silk Road:

          "The largest of these embassies to foreign states numbered
          several hundred persons, while even the smaller parties included
          over 100 members... In the course of one year anywhere from five
          to six to over ten parties would be sent out." (Shiji, trans.
          Burton Watson).

   Many objects were soon exchanged, and travelled as far as Guangzhou in
   the East, as suggested by the discovery of a Persian box and various
   artifacts from Central Asia in the 122 BCE tomb of the Chinese King Wen
   of Nanyue.
   Fresco describing Emperor Han Wudi (156-87 BCE) worshipping two statues
   of the Buddha, Mogao Caves, Dunhuang, c.8th century CE.
   Enlarge
   Fresco describing Emperor Han Wudi (156-87 BCE) worshipping two statues
   of the Buddha, Mogao Caves, Dunhuang, c.8th century CE.

   Around 120 BCE, one of these missions may have brought the first
   Buddhist statues to China. Murals in Mogao Caves in Dunhuang describe
   the Emperor Han Wudi (156-87 BCE) worshipping Buddhist statues,
   explaining them as "golden men brought in 120 BCE by a great Han
   general in his campaigns against the nomads", although there is no
   other mention of Han Wudi worshipping the Buddha in Chinese historical
   literature.

   China also sent a mission to Parthia, which were followed up by
   reciprocal missions from Parthian envoys around 100 BCE:

          "When the Han envoy first visited the kingdom of Anxi (Parthia),
          the king of Anxi dispatched a party of 20,000 horsemen to meet
          them on the eastern border of the kingdom... When the Han envoys
          set out again to return to China, the king of Anxi dispatched
          envoys of his own to accompany them... The emperor was delighted
          at this." (Shiji, 123, trans. Burton Watson).

   The Roman historian Florus describes the visit of numerous envoys,
   included Seres (Chinese), to the first Roman Emperor Augustus, who
   reigned between 27 BCE and 14 CE:

          "Even the rest of the nations of the world which were not
          subject to the imperial sway were sensible of its grandeur, and
          looked with reverence to the Roman people, the great conqueror
          of nations. Thus even Scythians and Sarmatians sent envoys to
          seek the friendship of Rome. Nay, the Seres came likewise, and
          the Indians who dwelt beneath the vertical sun, bringing
          presents of precious stones and pearls and elephants, but
          thinking all of less moment than the vastness of the journey
          which they had undertaken, and which they said had occupied four
          years. In truth it needed but to look at their complexion to see
          that they were people of another world than ours." ("Cathey and
          the way thither", Henry Yule).

   In 97 CE the Chinese general Ban Chao went as far west as the Caspian
   Sea with 70,000 men and established direct military contacts with the
   Parthian Empire, also dispatching an envoy to Rome in the person of Gan
   Ying.

   Several Roman embassies to China soon followed from 166 CE, and are
   officially recorded in Chinese historical chronicles.

Zhang Qian of today

   Zhang Qian (Chang Chien) is a frigate built in Taiwan based on the
   Oliver Hazard Perry class-design. It is currently in service for the
   Republic of China Navy.
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